It is the longest of the four gospels. Yet it represents only half of Luke's work, for it was originally joined to Acts as part of a two-volume work that constitutes in length more than a quarter of the NT - a narrative that blends the story of Jesus and the early church. Luke departs more from Mark than Matthew does and can be said to be halfway between Mark/Matthew and John theologically. Part of the theology is how the story of Jesus in the Gospel sets up what happens in Acts, especially for Peter, Stephen and Paul.

1. General Analysis of the Message

   Of the four evangelists, only Luke and John write a few verses explaining the meaning of their Gospel: John at the end (20:30-31), Luke at the beginning (1:1-4).

   1. Prologue (1: 1-4)

      It is a long sentence in a more formal style than that found elsewhere in the Gospel, written to guide the reader. There are parallels in the classical prefaces of Greek historians (Herodotus, Thucydides) and in Hellenistic medical and scientific treatises or manuals.

      • The author writes that there have been many writers, and now he too will write. The source of all these writings is the previous generation: "the first eyewitnesses and ministers of the word". These witnesses and ministers refer to the disciples/apostles.

      • "after following everything accurately ... to write for you in order". It is likely that the author does not mean anything other than to have traced things carefully and to have reorganized them logically.

      • "so that you may see the soundness of the teachings you have received". The theological objective is made clear to the "most excellent Theophilus", namely assurance concerning the Christian instruction he has received. The invitation to "see the soundness" is about the saving value of what is being recounted, not primarily about its historicity or the objectivity of its account. Luke-Acts is a story written by a believer to support faith.

      Lucan theology is staged through history and geography. Thus, there are three stages of salvation history in Luke:

      1. Israel (a story told in the Law and the Prophets or OT)

      2. Jesus (a story told in the Gospel, beginning in Luke 3:1)

      3. the Church (a story told in Acts, beginning in 2:1, and continuing to the ends of the earth until the Son of Man comes)

      Jesus is the centerpiece that links Israel and the Church, and his time can be calculated from baptism to ascension (Acts 1:22). The transitions from the OT to Jesus and from Jesus to the Church are respectively two bridges built by the evangelist. In Luke 1-2, Zechariah, Elizabeth, the shepherds, Simeon, and Anna represent the OT characters who cross the first bridge to meet the Gospel characters (Mary, Jesus); in Acts 1, the Gospel Jesus crosses the second bridge to instruct the Twelve and prepare them for the coming of the Spirit, who will establish the Church through their preaching and miracles. There is thus a continuity from the beginning of God's plan to the end.

   2. Introduction: Infancy and Boyhood of Jesus (1: 5 - 2: 52)

      Seven episodes are recognizable: two conception announcements (John the Baptist, Jesus), Mary's visit to Elizabeth, two birth narratives, Jesus' presentation in the Temple, the child Jesus in the Temple at age twelve. A careful parallelism is generally recognized in the first six. The universal gospel tradition that John the Baptist appeared on the scene before Jesus has been applied to the conception and birth, and they are now presented as related. However, there is no doubt that Jesus is greater.

      1. Annunciations of conceptions of JBap and Jesus (1: 5-45 ; 1: 56)

         Like Matthew, Luke begins his gospel by referring to the OT with the figure of Zechariah and Elizabeth, an evocation of the figure of Abraham and Sarah. The angel Gabriel, who appears in the OT only in the book of Daniel, comes at the time of the liturgical prayer; and the visionary is struck dumb (Dan 9:21; 10:8-12.15). Most importantly, Gabriel interprets the seventy weeks of years, a panoramic description of God's final plan in the last part of which "eternal justice will be introduced, vision and prophecy will be ratified, and a Holy of Holies will be anointed" (Dan 9:24). This period now begins with the conception of John the Baptist, who will play the role of Elijah (Luke 1:17), the one who, according to the last prophetic book (Mal 3:23-24 [or 4:5-6]), will be sent before the coming of the Day of the Lord.

         If the announcement of the conception of John the Baptist is evocative of what had gone before in Israel, the announcement of the birth of Jesus captures to a greater degree the newness that God has begun to establish. It is not to elderly parents desperate to have a child, but to a virgin totally surprised by the idea of conception that the angel Gabriel now comes. And the conception will not be the work of a human generation, but of the creative Spirit of God who will cover it with his shadow, the Spirit who gave birth to the world (Gn 1: 2). The child to be born is the subject of a double angelic proclamation. First, Israel's expectations will be fulfilled, for the child will be the Davidic Messiah. Second, the child will go far beyond those expectations, for he will be the only Son of God in the power of the Holy Spirit. Mary's response, "Let it be done to me according to your word," meets the gospel criterion of belonging to the family of disciples. Thus, the angel announces in advance what the gospel will proclaim: the double identity of Jesus, son of David and Son of God, and Mary becomes the first disciple.

         Although some see the visitation as a separate scene bringing together the dramatic characters of the two annunciations, it can be seen as an epilogue to the annunciation to Mary, as she hurriedly fulfills the first duty of discipleship by sharing the Gospel with others. John the Baptist in his mother's womb begins his role as herald of the Messiah's coming, and Elizabeth's reaction, blessing Mary as mother of the Messiah and then as one who believed the word of the Lord, anticipates Jesus' priorities of hearing and observing the word.

         Table of Luke's Infancy Narrative Structure

         Annunciation Diptych
         (First Stage of Lucan Composition)
         1: 5-25				1: 26-45.56
         Annunciation about John the Baptist				Annunciation about Jesus
         Introduction of the dramatis personae: Zechariah and Elizabeth, of priestly family, aged, barren (5-7)				The angel Gabriel sent to Mary, a virgin betrothed to Joseph of the House of David (26-28)
         Annunciation of the conception of John the Baptist delivered by an angel of the Lord (Gabriel) to Zechariah in the Temple (8-23)				Annunciation of the conception of Jesus delivered by Gabriel to Mary in Nazareth.
         	Setting (8-10): The priestly customs: Zechariahs turn to offer incense.
         	Core (11-20):
         		1. Angel of the Lord appeared to Zechariah				1. Gabriel came to Mary
         		2. Zechariah was startled				2. Mary was startled
         		3. The message:				3. The message:
         			a. Zechariah				a. Hail...Mary
         							b. Favored one
         			c. Do not be afraid				c. Do not be afraid
         							d. You will conceive
         			e. Elizabeth will bear you a son				e. and give birth to a son
         			f. You will call his name John				f. You will call his name Jesus
         			h. He will be great before the Lord, etc. (15-17)				h. He will be great, etc. (32-33)
         		4. How am I to know this? The angel's response (19)				4. How can this be? The angel's response (35)
         		5. The sign: Behold you will be reduced to silence				5. The sign: Behold your relative has conceived.
         	Conclusion (21-23): Zechariah emerged from the Temple unable to speak. He went back home.				Mary responded with acceptance and the angel went away.
         Epilogue: Elizabeth conceived; she reflected in seclusion in praise of the Lord (24-25).				Epilogue: Mary went to the house of Zechariah and greeted Elizabeth, who was filled with the Holy Spirit and proclaimed the praise of the mother of the Lord. Mary returned home (39-45.56).

         Birth Diptych (First Stage of Lucan Composition)
         1: 57-66.80	2: 2-12.15-27.34-40
         Birth/Naming/Greatness of JBap	Birth/Naming/Greatness of Jesus
         Notice of Birth: rejoicing by neighbors (57-58)	Scene of Birth (1-20): Setting (1-7): Census involving the two parents; birth at Bethlehem
         Scene of Circumcision/Naming (59-66) Two parents involved in wonders surrounding the naming, indicating the future greatness of the child	Annunciation (8-12): Angel of the Lord appeared to shepherds nearby Shepherds filled with fear The message Do not be afraid; great joy This day there is born in the city of David A Savior who is Messiah and Lord The sign: a baby wrapped and lying in a manger Reactions (15-20): Shepherds went to Bethlehem, saw the sign; made known the event;
         All astonished; Zechariah spoke praising God; All the neighbors feared; All who heard stored the events up in their heart.	Hearers astonished Mary keeps these events in her heart; Shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God Notice of Circoncision / Naming Scene of Presentation in Temple (22-27.34-38); Setting (22-24): Purification of parents; consecration of firstborn, according to the Law Greeting By Simeon (25-27.34-35); moved by the Holy Spirit, Simeon blessed parents, and prophesied the child's future Greeting by Anna (36-38)
         Conclusion (80) Refrain on growth of the child. His stay in the desert.	Conclusion (39-40): Return to Galilee and Nazareth Refrain on growth of the child

          

      2. The Magnificat and the other canticles (1: 46-55)

         In the table of diptychs, the term "first stage of Luke's composition" has been used to accommodate the common thesis that, in a second stage, Luke added hymns from a collection of ancient Greek hymns to his basic plan: the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Gloria in excelsis and the Nunc dimittis. These hymns reflect the style of Jewish hymnology, as seen in 1 Maccabees and the Qumran Psalms of Thanksgiving, as each line echoes the OT, so that the whole is a mosaic of scriptural themes reused for a new expression of praise. Thus, the hymns complement the promise and fulfillment motif of the infancy narratives (moreover, the Magnificat is clearly modeled on the hymn of Hannah, Samuel's mother, in 1 Sam 2:1-10). The Christology is indirect, proclaiming that God has done something decisive, but never specifying it with reference to the career of Jesus - hence the suggestion that these texts may have come from the earliest Christians.

      3. Narratives of birth, circumcision, and naming of JBap and Jesus (1: 57 - 2: 40)

         In the diptych of the birth, the similarities between the two sides are not as close as in the diptych of the annunciation, because the greater dignity of Jesus is the object of greater attention. The events surrounding John the Baptist echo the scene of the annunciation: Elizabeth unexpectedly gives the name John to the child, and Zechariah regains his speech. The Benedictus exalts the fulfillment of all that was promised to Israel. The description of the growth of John the Baptist and his spirit echoes the growth of Samson (Jdg 13:24-25) and Samuel (1 Sam 2:21).

         The setting for Jesus' birth is provided by Caesar Augustus' decree for a census of the entire world that took place when Quirinius was governor of Syria. Historically, there are many problems with this description:
         • there was never a census of the whole Empire under Augustus (but a number of local censuses),
         • and the census of Judea (not Galilee) under Quirinius, the governor of Syria, took place in 6-7 AD, probably at least ten years too late for Jesus' birth.
         The best explanation is that, although Luke likes to set his Christian drama in the context of well-known events of antiquity, he sometimes does so inaccurately. Theologically, by associating the birth of Jesus with the decree of Augustus, Luke introduces a divine plan that will culminate in Paul's proclamation of the Gospel in Rome. The events that Luke will describe actually took place in a small town in Palestine, but by calling Bethlehem the city of David and by locating them in a Roman census, Luke symbolizes the importance of these events to Israel's royal heritage and, ultimately, to the world empire. The angels' announcement, "Today in the city of David a Savior is born to you, who is the Messiah and the Lord," mimics an imperial proclamation. If Augustus is portrayed in the inscriptions as a great savior and benefactor, Luke portrays Jesus as an even greater savior. This is an event on the cosmic stage, as the angelic multitude emphasizes by affirming glory to God in heaven and peace on earth. Finally, the shepherds leave the scene and never reappear, and so Luke avoids contradicting the broader tradition that public Christological recognition of Jesus did not exist before his baptism. Mary is the only adult who survives from the infancy narrative to Jesus' public ministry. The mention that she "treasured all these words and pondered them in her heart" uses reflective formulas, drawn from Jewish visionary descriptions (Gen 37:11; Dan 4:28 LXX), to show that Mary has not yet fully understood the implications of what has happened. This preserves her discipleship: even after all the revelation that has been given, she has yet to learn the identity of her Son as it will be revealed through the sufferings of the ministry and through the cross ("A sword will pierce your soul.")

         The presentation of Jesus in the Temple must be seen in the context of the diptych where the parallelism is underlined by a similar conclusion for John the Baptist and Jesus. We should note that there are two important themes that come together: how Jesus' parents were faithful to the Law, and how Simeon and Anna, representative of the devout Jews who await the fulfillment of God's promises to Israel, accepted Jesus. This is part of Luke's thesis that neither Jesus nor his proclamation were in contradiction with Judaism. Nevertheless, the light that is to be a revelation to the Gentiles and a glory to Israel will cause the fall and rise of many in Israel.

      4. The boy Jesus in the Temple (2: 41-52)

         From a source perspective, it appears that Luke received this narrative independently of the other infancy narratives; this independence is notable because our narrative ignores all other prior revelations about Jesus' identity. A document such as the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, which recounts "the high deeds of the infancy of our Lord Jesus Christ" between the ages of five and twelve, attests that a number of narratives of Jesus' childhood or "hidden life" were in circulation at the time. All of these writings seek to answer the question: if during his public ministry Jesus performed miracles and was able to speak in the name of God, when did he acquire these powers? At his baptism? The infancy narratives want to show that he had these powers from his earliest years.

         Whatever the origin of the story of Jesus at age twelve, by placing it between the infancy and public ministry narratives, Luke has constructed a most compelling Christological sequence. At the annunciation, an angel proclaims that Jesus is the Son of God; at the age of twelve, Jesus, when he speaks for the first time, makes it clear that God is his Father; at the age of thirty, at the beginning of Jesus' public ministry, God's own voice from heaven says, "You are my beloved Son." But in inserting this account, Luke faces the difficulty that, historically, such an identity had remained unknown to the people of Nazareth; his solution: Jesus was obedient to his parents when he returned to Nazareth, not provoking any more revealing incidents like that in the Temple.

   3. Preparation fur the Public Ministry (3: 1 - 4: 13)
      • (3: 1-20) "The year fifteen of the government of Tiberius Caesar..." Here we see Luke's sense of history and his theology of the importance of the world in the beginning of the era of Jesus and of the Gospel itself. He proposes six markers for dating (Tiberius, Pilate, Herod, Philip, Lysanias, Hanan-Caiaphas), which brings us to around the year 29. John the Baptist, whom the evangelist associates with the OT prophets (Isa 38:4; Jer 1:2), inaugurates the era of Jesus by fulfilling Gabriel's prediction to Zacharias. Luke expands the citation from Isaiah, also found in Mark, to include the phrase "all flesh will see the salvation of God," a reference to the Gentiles. This sequence is composed of material from Mark, from Q Document (3: 7b-9: "brood of vipers...") and from material he composed himself (3: 10-15: "What then must we do?"). John the Baptist's teaching on "what to do" is particularly Lucan, with its emphasis on sharing goods, justice for the poor, and kindness. Among the Synoptics, only Luke raises the question of whether John the Baptist was the Messiah, a question used to introduce the Baptist's preaching about the one to come. Finally, as is customary, he makes a point of bringing John the Baptist off the stage before beginning the story of Jesus' ministry.

      • (3:21-38) "as all the people were baptized, so was Jesus." Luke does not describe the scene of Jesus' baptism to avoid any idea of subordination to John the Baptist. Rather, he emphasizes that Jesus is praying (a Lucan theme that will also end the ministry: 22:46) and that in response the Holy Spirit descends in bodily form (Lucan imagery to emphasize reality, as in the appearance of the risen Jesus in 24:39-43). The same Holy Spirit who comes upon Jesus at the beginning of the Gospel will come upon the Twelve at Pentecost. Luke stops here to tell the genealogy of Jesus, a genealogy that goes back to Adam, father of all humanity, and even to God. The placement of the genealogy just before the beginning of Jesus' ministry is an imitation of Ex 6:14-26 where Moses' genealogy is given before he begins his ministry of leading the Israelites out of Egypt.

      • (4:1-13) The trials/temptations of Jesus, derived from the Q Document, are introduced by the indication that Jesus was "filled with the Spirit," a Lucan emphasis to prepare for the prominent role of the Spirit in Acts. Note that Luke does not bring in angels to minister to Jesus and makes it clear that the devil left him until an appropriate time. At the beginning of the passion, Luke, alone among the Synoptics, will be precise about the presence of Satan, the power of darkness; and on the Mount of Olives, when Jesus is again tested, an angel comes to strengthen him.

   4. Ministry in Galilee (4: 14 - 9: 50)

      With his sense of theological geography, Luke draws our attention to Jesus' return to Galilee and then a little later (9:51) to his departure for Jerusalem, thus constituting a section we have called "ministry in Galilee" where he doles out the material received from Mark.

      1. Rejection at Nazareth; activities at Capernaum and on the Lake (4: 14 - 5: 16)
         • (4:14-30) To explain why Jesus of Nazareth spent most of his ministry in Capernaum, Luke begins the narrative with Jesus' rejection in Nazareth, a scene Mark presents much later. The story takes place in the synagogue where Jesus is called upon to read from Isaiah 61:1-2 (the only scene in which Jesus is presented as a reader), which reflects the Jubilee year amnesty for the oppressed and which Jesus uses to portray the agenda of his ministry. This rejection is so violent that it prepares the reader for Jesus' ultimate fate.

         • (4:41-44) Luke recounts four activities related to Capernaum, which now becomes the operational center of Jesus' Galilean ministry.
           1. The first of the twenty-one Lucan miracles (deeds of power) is an exorcism (Jesus will have to fight against many demons)

           2. The healing of Simon's mother-in-law omits the presence of the four disciples-fishermen in Mark's account, because in Luke's account Jesus has not yet called them

           3. In a summary of Jesus' actions (healing of many diseases) in Capernaum, Luke avoids Mark's exaggeration that the whole city gathered around the door

           4. What happens when Jesus goes to a deserted place presents a typical Lucan universalization, since it is the people, not Simon and his companions, who are looking for Jesus. Note the ambiguous use of "synagogues of Judea" when Jesus is in Galilee: either Luke does not know the geography of Palestine, or he uses "Judea" in the sense of "land of the Jews".

         • (5: 1-11) The miraculous fishing and the call of the disciples illustrate an ingenious Lucan ordering. The call of the first disciples, which Mark had placed before the four activities in Capernaum, was moved after these and, in fact, after a miraculous catch that only Luke, among the Synoptics, records. The fact that Jesus healed Simon's mother-in-law and performed an extraordinary catch explains why Simon and the others followed Jesus so readily as disciples. The call of Simon, a self-confessed unworthy sinner, is a dramatic presentation of vocation and sets the stage for the call of Paul who was also unworthy because he had persecuted Christians (Acts 9:1-2; Gal 1:13-15). The theme of leaving "everything" to follow Jesus illustrates Luke's emphasis on detachment from possessions.

      2. Reactions to Jesus: Controversies with the Pharisees; choice of the Twelve and preaching to the multitude on the plain (5: 17 - 6: 49)
         • (5:17 - 6:11) Based on Mark 2:1 - 3:6, Luke presents a series of five disputes in which the Pharisees play a role everywhere. The disputes concern a paralytic, the calling of Levi, fasting, the gathering of ears of corn and healing on the Sabbath. The Pharisees criticize many aspects of Jesus' behavior: his claim to be able to forgive sins, his associates, the fact that he did not make his disciples fast, the fact that they gathered ears of corn and a healing on the Sabbath. Note Luke's emphasis on Jesus' prayer as he withdraws to a desert place (5:16). The healing of the paralytic becomes more solemn when Luke enlarges the audience to include the Pharisees and teachers of the Law from all the villages of Galilee, Judea and Jerusalem, and tells us that the power of the Lord was with him to heal. To make the setting more understandable to his Greek audience, Luke 5:19 describes a tiled roof rather than the Palestinian roof of reeds and dried mud through which one could have dug (see Mark 2:4). In Levi's call, out of respect for Jesus, the anger of the Pharisees and their scribes is now directed at the behavior of his disciples rather than at Jesus (as in Mark). In the question about fasting and the answer about the new and the old, Luke 5:39 is unique in emphasizing the superiority of the old. Is this a gesture of respect from Luke to those of Jewish origin among his recipients who had difficulty abandoning their former adherence? These disputes lead the enemies of Jesus to plot against him.

         • (6:12-26) With his sense of order, Luke delayed Mark's two scenes of the healing of the multitude and the calling of the Twelve so that the Twelve would be with Jesus when he heals "all" among a great multitude in a plain. This means that Luke's Sermon on the Plain is addressed to all the disciples, not just the Twelve. Four beatitudes open the sermon, echoing Jesus' program proclaimed in the synagogue at Nazareth. These beatitudes are addressed to those who are indeed poor, hungry, grieving and hated "now". The accompanying "woes," perhaps of Lucan creation and resembling the contrasts of the Magnificat, allude to the antagonisms generated by the rich in the recipients. Luke's ideal is the Jerusalem community of believers who give their goods to the common fund, as he describes in Acts 2:44-45; 4:32-37.

         • (6:27-49) Without the "You have heard...but I say to you" that characterizes Matthew 5:17-48, Luke sets out Jesus' values. Although these are sometimes called "kingdom ethics," this designation is much more appropriate for Matthew, where the word "kingdom" appears eight times in the Sermon on the Mount, than for Luke, who mentions the word "kingdom" only once in the entire sermon (6:20). There is thus less of an eschatological tone in the surprising demands of the Lucan Jesus to his disciples to love those who hate and abuse them. The request not to judge is an extension of love. We are reminded that the requests are addressed to all those who want to hear, and that the requests are not met by those who do not bear good fruit and simply say "Lord, Lord".

      3. Miracles and parables that illustrate Jesus' power and help to reveal his identity; mission of the Twelve (7: 1 - 9: 6)
         • (7:1-10) The Lucan form of the healing of the centurion's servant (from the Q Document), where it is elders of the Jews rather than the centurion himself who make the request to Jesus, and where it is a servant who is healed, not his child, may be a secondary development. The story contrasts a Gentile's response of faith to Jesus with the rejection of Jesus by the Jewish authorities. He is a Gentile who loved the Jewish nation and built the synagogue, foreshadowing Cornelius, the first Gentile to convert in Acts 10:1-2.

         • (7:11-17) The next miracle, the raising of the son of the widow of Nain, is typically Lucan. This impressive manifestation of power allows Jesus to be recognized on the Christological level, but it also shows his compassion for a mother deprived of her only son.

         • (7:18-35) Returning to the Q Document material, Luke gives us a scene about John the Baptist that clarifies his relationship with Jesus. The Lucan Jesus' response to John the Baptist's disciples in terms of Isaiah is consistent with his having proclaimed excerpts from Isaiah in advance in Nazareth. Luke alone mentions that Jesus' praise of John the Baptist was appropriate for all the people and the tax collectors, who had been baptized by the Baptist and recognized his role in God's plan, but not for the Pharisees and jurists, who had not been baptized and rejected that plan. This reaction helps explain Q's comparison with petulant children who cannot be satisfied. The Lucan form of the last verse has wisdom justified by "all his children," i.e., John the Baptist and Jesus and those who are their followers.

         • (7:36-50) Luke cleverly tells a beautiful story in the context of the meal at the table of Simon the Pharisee involving a sinful, penitent woman who weeps and anoints Jesus' feet. It may be composite since it involves a parable comparing two debtors. Is the Lucan story the same as the story of the anointing of Jesus' head by a woman at the home of Simon the leper in Mk 14:3-9 and Mt 26:6-13, and the anointing of Jesus' feet by Mary, the sister of Martha and Lazarus, in Jn 12:1-8? There is also a debate about whether the sinful woman in Luke was forgiven because she loved much or whether she loved much because she had already been forgiven. Either or both of these meanings would fit with Luke's emphasis on God's forgiveness in Christ and a loving response.

         • (8:1-3) Luke describes the Galilean women who follow Jesus and who have been healed of evil spirits and diseases. Three of them are named: Mary Magdalene, Joanna, wife of Chuza, Herod's steward, and Susanna; the first two will appear at the empty tomb. Note that the other gospels name the Galilean women exclusively in relation to the crucifixion and resurrection, so that only Luke tells us about their past and the fact that they responded to the needs of Jesus and the Twelve according to their means - a picture of devoted female disciples. This support partly anticipates the image of women in Acts, for example Lydia in Philippi (16:15).

         • (8, 4-15) Following the structure of Mark, Luke then tells the parable of the sower and the seed and its explanation, interrupted by the purpose of the parables. In the yield of the seed in the good soil, only the hundredfold yield is mentioned (not thirty or sixty), and this seed is interpreted as those who hear the word, hold it in an honest and good heart, and bear fruit with patience.

         • (8:16-21) The brief series of parabolic words centered on the lamp also ends with the theme of listening and caring and leads to the arrival of Jesus' mother and brothers. Although Luke copies Mark, he changes the meaning of the story. There is no longer an unfavorable contrast between the natural family and a family of disciples; on the contrary, there is only praise for the mother and brothers who hear the word of God and put it into practice: they are the example of the good seed and correspond to the criterion of discipleship.

         • (8:22-56) Luke now gives a sequence of four miracle stories: the calming of the storm at sea, the healing of the demon-possessed man from Gergesene, the resuscitation of Jairus' daughter, and the healing of the woman who was bleeding. The miracles in this chapter are very elaborate, and Jesus' greatness is on full display as he exercises his power over the sea, demons, long-term illnesses and death itself.

         • (9:1-6) Luke then continues with the sending of the Twelve. Having manifested his power, Jesus now shares it with the Twelve by giving them authority over demons and sending them out to preach the Gospel and to heal.

      4. Questions of Jesus' identity: Herod, feeding of the 5,000, Peter's confession, First and second passion prediction, transfiguration (9: 7 - 50)
         • (9: 7-9). While the Twelve are absent, we are told that Herod had John the Baptist beheaded. Luke omits the entire Marcan account of Herod's banquet and the dance of Herodias' daughter, perhaps reflecting a distaste for the sensational. The important point for Luke is the curiosity of the "tetrarch" about Jesus.

         • (9:10-17) The theme of Jesus' identity continues in the following scenes. They begin with the return of the twelve apostles and the meal of the 5,000, an account he modifies from Mark's. Luke then omits Mark 6:45 - 8:26 (everything that happens after the multiplication of the loaves until the second multiplication: walking on the waters, healings in Gennesaret, discussions with the Pharisees about traditions, the faith of a Syro-Phoenician woman, the healing of a deaf-mute, the 2nd multiplication of the loaves). With regard to the 2nd multiplication of the loaves, Luke probably considered these to be duplicates and decided to report only one; but the differences from the Marcan account of the 5,000 and the presence of another variant in John 6:1-15 may mean that he combined two accounts in the single multiplication of the loaves he reports.

         • (9:18-27) Luke joins Mark's plan here with Peter's confession, which occurs in a typical Lucan setting, that of Jesus at prayer. This confession is met with the first prediction of Jesus' passion, but in Luke (unlike Mark and Matthew) there is no misunderstanding on Peter's part and no chastisement of him. On the contrary, Jesus continues his teaching about the cross and the judgment. If the Son of Man must suffer, his followers must also suffer if they hope to share in his glory. Interesting Lucan features of this series of teachings on discipleship include the requirement to take up the cross "every day" and the clarification that the Son of Man has his own glory alongside that of the Father.

         • (9:28-36) The transfiguration, which takes place in the context of Jesus' prayer, describes this glory as already present in Jesus' earthly career. But it also affirms the suffering aspect of the Son of Man, for Jesus speaks to Moses and Elijah about his "exodus," that is, his departure to God through death in Jerusalem. Both glory and suffering are affirmed by the voice of God who identifies him as Son and Chosen One (suffering servant).

         • (9:37-43a) The account of the possessed child is not as explicit about the epilepsy as in Matthew, and he shortens the pictorial description even more. In particular, Luke removes most of Mark's emphasis on the inability of the disciples to heal this child, focusing instead on the miracle that manifests "the majesty of God.

         • (9:43b-50) In the second prediction of the passion and the dispute over who is greatest, Luke again softens the Marcan picture by explaining that the disciples did not understand because Jesus' word was hidden from them and by moderating the confrontation over which of them was greatest. Not only is the least of them the greatest, but even a stranger who uses Jesus' name has a place.

   5. Journey to Jerusalem (9: 51 - 19: 27)

      Luke writes another sub-preface here to mark a major change. The time has come for Jesus to be taken up (to heaven), and so he is heading for Jerusalem where he is to die. Luke portrays a Jesus who knows his fate and accepts it from God. The long journey is the (artificial) setting for the "great interpolation" (9:51-18:14), as Luke abandons the Marcan plan for almost all of this second half of the Gospel and inserts large blocks of Q and his own sources (L). This section of the Gospel is very characteristic of Luke.

      1. First to second mention of Jerusalem (9: 51 - 13: 21)
         • (9:51-62) Among the Gospels, only Luke presents the hostile encounter with a Samaritan village, which is diametrically opposed to the warm welcome given to Jesus by the Samaritans in John. Very Lucan is Jesus' refusal of the revenge against the Samaritans proposed by James and John. The scene that follows, the dialogue with three aspiring disciples, highlights the absolute requirement imposed by the kingdom.

         • (10:1-12) Only Luke has a second mission, the sending of the seventy-two. He seems to have created it from the same Q material as that used for the sending of the Twelve. The doubling may be designed to prepare for Acts where the Twelve play an important role at the beginning of the mission, but where the initiative then passes to others, such as Paul, Barnabas and Silas. The need for a second sending in the Gospel is explained by the importance of the harvest. Does the designation of the "seventy-two" echo, for Luke, the enumeration of the nations in Gen 10:2-31 (LXX) and thus prognosticate the final extent of the harvest?

         • (10:17-24) The joy of the demons' submission marks the lucid return of the seventy-two, a contrast to the earlier unemotional return of the Twelve. Jesus summarizes their mission in terms of the fall of Satan. The disciples should rejoice because their names are written in heaven, and they have received a revelation from the Father, a passage that has Johannine parallels. The fact that the disciples were chosen by the Son to receive revelation is demonstrated by the beatitude pronounced over them.

         • (10:25-37) The next episode begins with a question from a jurist about eternal life and Jesus' answer about love of God and neighbor. Although the jurist's question is a test for Jesus, he loves his answer; and this leads to more questions from the jurist and to the parable of the Good Samaritan. Since the commandment to love leads to (eternal) life, the jurist tries to find out casuistically to whom the commandment applies; but he is told that one can only define what love is, not its object. The Samaritan is chosen to illustrate a subject of unlimited scope, perhaps preparing Acts 8 with its positive picture of the Samaritans' reaction to the gospel.

         • (10:38-42) The story of Martha and Mary is another example where Luke's own material has Johannine parallels. Yet there are also major differences: The brother Lazarus is absent from Luke, and the family home of Bethany in John is two miles from Jerusalem, not a village on the way from Galilee and Samaria to Jerusalem. The importance of Luke's story is that listening to the word of Jesus is the only thing that matters.

         • (11:1-13) Similarly, the instruction given to the disciple who asks for the Lord's Prayer is simple: a shorter and in some ways older formulation than that preserved in Matthew, but also less eschatological. The encouragement to pray is continued by the typically Lucan parable of the insistent friend, a story that has overtones of local Palestinian color, for it shows the whole family crammed into a one-room house. Q's material on insisting on asking is added to make the point. Note that in Matthew it is good things that the Father gives to those who pray, in Luke it is the Holy Spirit, as we will see in Acts.

         • (11:14-28) Luke abruptly introduces a passage of dispute and sayings about the evil spirit. The reference to the struggle between the strong man (Beelzebul) and the stronger one (Jesus) prepares the readers for the struggle that will take place in Jerusalem at the passion. The beatitude of the woman in the crowd ("Blessed is she who bore you and nursed you") is peculiar to Luke.

         • (11:29 - 12:1) In the warning signs for this generation, the parabolic sayings about the light, and the curses on the Pharisees, there are notable Lucan characteristics compared to Matthew: the emphasis is no longer on the three days in the sea monster, but on preaching to the people of Nineveh; he adds an invitation to give alms; the person speaking these words is not "I" but "the Wisdom of God"; the accusation is no longer against the scribes and Pharisees for having locked up the kingdom of heaven as in Mt 23:13, but against the legalists for having taken away the key to knowledge. Finally, Luke ends the passage by warning the crowds to beware of "the leaven of the Pharisees, which is hypocrisy," a term common in Matthew for the Pharisees.

         • (12:2-12) The exhortation to confess without fear promises reward to the one who proclaims the truth and warns of judgment to the one who does not. Even a Gospel as emphatic about forgiveness as Luke's preserves the tradition of unforgivable blasphemy against the Holy Spirit. The assurance that "the Holy Spirit will teach you what to say" in the face of hostility from the synagogue and secular authorities takes on additional significance in the stories that illustrate the trials of Christians in Acts.

         • (12:13-34) The pericope on the request to share an inheritance and the parable of the rich man who expands his barn are typically Lucan. The hopes of sharing an inheritance fairly or expanding a growing business, understandable in themselves, express a strong interest in material goods and is irreconcilable with an interest in God. The fate of the rich man reflects the expectation of an individual judgment that will take place before the general judgment at the end of the world. This parable is followed by a passage decrying the cares of earthly things and illustrating how well one can live without such cares. The instruction "Sell your possessions and give alms" is very Lucan in its perspective.

         • (12:35-48) Luke now changes the subject with a section on the need to watch faithfully. In the midst of the material from the Q Document, Luke inserts a question from Peter about whether this teaching is "for us or for all," which is never specifically answered. However, since the following proverb implies a steward who takes good care of the house, one might judge that there is a greater obligation for the apostles and Christian leaders. While Q's material ends with a threat of punishment for the servant who does not watch, Luke adds a nuance where he distinguishes punishment for those who had knowledge and those who did not.

         • (12:49-59) Remaining in a context of punishment, Luke gives us a chilling description of the various outcomes of Jesus' ministry. In eschatological language, Jesus speaks of the fire he is to bring on the earth and the baptism of trial that is part of his destiny. Division, not peace, will be the result; the prediction in Lk 2:34 that Jesus would bring about the fall and rise of many in Israel is now clarified in terms of how families will be divided. Clearly, much of this will happen soon, as Jesus expresses his anger at people's inability to read the signs of the present time.

         • (13:1-9) Luke now adds his own examples of destruction to instill repentance. We do not know of any other Galileans who were killed by Pilate while offering a sacrifice (in Jerusalem), nor do we know of the fall of a tower at Siloam (the fountain in Jerusalem), although some have thought that the first incident explains the enmity between Herod and Pilate. The parable of the fig tree offers a last chance for the tree to bear fruit before it is cut down. Many have wondered whether this is not a benevolent Lucan form of the curse of the fig tree in Mark and Matthew, and thus a miracle turned parable.

         • (13:10-21) Luke then depicts Jesus teaching in a synagogue on the Sabbath and compassionately healing a crippled woman, an act that outrages the synagogue leader. Although the healing causes the people to rejoice, it shames the authorities and, in the present sequence, may illustrate that some will not repent and listen. Nevertheless, the twin parables of the mustard seed and the leaven give assurance that the kingdom will eventually expand and be great despite its small beginnings.

      2. Second to third mention of Jerusalem (13: 22 - 17: 10)
         • (13:22-30) Recalling that Jesus is on his way to Jerusalem, Luke asks a question about how many people will be saved. This question introduces the subject of exclusion and acceptance into the kingdom. Many who claim to know Jesus will be excluded, while strangers from all over the world will be admitted.

         • (13:31-35) The Pharisees' report of Herod's murderous hostility explains why Jesus goes to Jerusalem. The reader is probably supposed to both believe that the Pharisees are telling the truth and to be suspicious of their motives, for they may have been trying to remove Jesus from the scene by urging him to save his life by leaving Galilee. Paradoxically, Jesus knows that going to Jerusalem will lead to his death. Jesus' reflections on his fate lead to the plaintive apostrophe to Jerusalem: as a prophet, Jesus will die there, but the city will be punished for what it does to prophets.

         • (14:1-24) The next three episodes take place in the house of a prominent Pharisee: the healing of a man with dropsy on the Sabbath, two instructions on how to behave at dinner and the parable of the great banquet. The healing of the hydropic man is almost a pair with the earlier healing of a woman on the Sabbath and has much the same message. The first instruction, not to take the privileged place at the table, comes close to prudential good manners, especially if one judges that the goal is to enjoy greater honor at the table. However, it warns against self-honor. The second instruction, to invite the disadvantaged rather than peers, is in keeping with the reverse values of the kingdom, where the poor are more important than the rich. The parable of the great banquet passes judgment of rejection on the first guests because they had priorities that they put before the invitation to the kingdom.

         • (14:25-35) Then, without mentioning Jesus' departure from the Pharisee's house, Luke has Jesus speak to the large crowds that accompanied him about the demands of discipleship. The cautionary parables about the need to calculate the cost before founding a house or starting a war - parables worthy of an OT wisdom teacher - are unique to Luke.

         • (15:1-32) The entire next chapter consists of three parables: the lost sheep, the lost coin, the lost (prodigal) son. Matthew integrates the parable of the lost sheep into the Sermon on the Church addressed to the disciples; Luke addresses his three parables to the Pharisees and scribes who object to Jesus' association with sinners. The references to joy in heaven show that the parables teach a lesson in God's merciful love and portray the value of those whom others despise as lost. In the first two parables, Luke has a man and a woman (shepherd, housewife) respectively, as in the man-woman combination of the parables of the mustard seed and the leaven. The lost or prodigal son emphasizes that the older brother should not be jealous of the father's benevolent treatment of the sinful younger brother, and this fits the purpose: to correct the Pharisees' attitude toward sinners. Furthermore, the picture of the father running up to the younger son and embracing him before he can deliver the prepared speech of repentance could serve as an illustration of Rom 5:8: "God's love for us is shown in that, while we were still sinners, Christ died for us", and 1 Jn 4:10: "In this is love, not that we loved God, but that God loved us".

         • (16:1-15) The parable of the unjust steward seems to recommend questionable business practices to the disciples, but what is praised is the steward's careful and energetic initiative, not his dishonesty. Various sayings dealing with wealth have been attached to the parable. On the whole, they serve Luke's theological principle that abundant money corrupts and that the right way to use it is to give it to the poor and thus make friends who, when they go to heaven, can help them. At the end of the pericope, Luke moves on to challenge the Pharisees who are "lovers of money" and glory in front of others.

         • (16:16-18) Perhaps the Pharisees' devotion to the Law provides the mental link to Q's next words on the Law and divorce. The best interpretation of v. 16 ("The Law and the Prophets go as far as John; since then the good news of the Kingdom of God has been proclaimed, and every man puts forth his strength to enter it") is that the coming of John the Baptist marks both the end of the Law and the Prophets and the beginning of the preaching of the gospel of the Kingdom. There is no discontinuity between the two eras, for in Jesus' teaching not even the smallest part of a letter of the Law disappears. What does the word on divorce have to do with the previous principle on the Law? It is clear that Jesus' prohibition of divorce is not consistent with the permission given to man to divorce in Deut. 24:1-4. Although Luke does not mention Gen 1:27 and 2:24 as do Mark and Matthew, had this reference become an inherent part of the Christian interpretation, so that the prohibition of divorce was considered to be in accordance with the Law?

         • (16:19-31) The theme of the evil effects of wealth recurs in the Lucan parable of the rich man and Lazarus. The different fates after death are not based on the fact that the rich man led a life of vice and Lazarus was very virtuous; they are based on the fact that the rich man had a comfortable and well-fed life, while Lazarus was hungry and miserable. This attack on the Pharisees' love of money is made more acute by a second point, made at the end of the parable. If they do not listen to Moses and the prophets, they will not listen to someone who has risen from the dead. For Luke's readers/listeners, this seems prophetic, for Acts will show that people did not listen, even after Jesus rose from the dead.

         • (17:1-10) The subject changes when Jesus gives his disciples four unrelated warnings about behavior. Warning against scandalizing others, they insist on forgiving other disciples, on the power of faith, and on the distinction between great achievements and duty. The last warning, which is typically Lucan, is an interesting challenge: the disciples who followed Jesus may have the idea that they have done something great, but they must tell themselves that they are useless servants who have only done their duty.

      3. Last stage of journey till arrival in Jerusalem (17: 11 - 19: 27)
         • (17:11-19) The story of the cleansing of the leper and the grateful Samaritan is unique to Luke. Jesus has been on his way to Jerusalem since 9:51, and in 9:52 his messengers have entered a Samaritan village. The fact that at this point in the narrative he is still passing between Samaria and Galilee tells us that the journey is an artificial setting (and also that Luke may not have had a clear idea of the Palestinian geography). Yet this setting explains why there is a Samaritan among the lepers, in fact, the only leper to show gratitude and thus receive salvation. His reaction anticipates the happy reception of the good news of Jesus by the Samaritans in Acts 8:1-25.

         • (17:20-37) Since Jesus' journey will soon end with his departure from this world, it is appropriate that Jesus now gives the Pharisees and then his disciples an eschatological teaching, taken from Q, L and Luke's own composition, as an anticipation and almost a double of the eschatological discourse to be presented in chapter 21. The teaching warns against being deceived, on the one hand, by false claims that the kingdom or the days of the Son of Man have visibly arrived, and, on the other, by living thoughtlessly as if there will never be a judgment. These are the most Lucan characteristics: the kingdom of God cannot be observed and is among us, and judgment is unpredictable and discriminatory, choosing one person and leaving another.

         • (18:1-17) In the face of eschatological judgment, Luke's own parable of the unjust judge is designed to encourage the disciples with an a fortiori principle. If continued prayer persuades a totally amoral judge, how much more will their persistent and trusting prayer be heard by God who defends the elect. The theme of prayer leads to the Lucan parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector. Beyond the demonstration of God's mercy towards sinners, the story raises the question of the rejection of the Pharisee, who returns unjustified. The Pharisee is not a hypocrite because, although a bit boastful, he lived faithfully to God's commandments as he understood them. Is the problem that, although he thanks God, he has not shown that he needs God, grace or forgiveness? Or does the Lucan Jesus come close to the Pauline thought that observance of commanded works alone does not bring justification? The example of God's kindness to the tax collector leads Luke to recount Jesus' kindness to little children, who serve as a model of dependence on God to enter the kingdom.

         • (18:18-34) All of this leads to the question of the notable about what is necessary for eternal life and the obstacle of wealth. Although Luke now follows Mark closely (though he omits the fact that Jesus began to love the notable), the theme is consistent with Luke's emphasis on the need to sell everything and distribute to the poor. Even those who keep the commandments must be challenged to go further to enter the kingdom. Luke adds "wife" to the list of what will be left behind for the sake of the kingdom - is he thinking of his hero Paul in Acts who was not married? Luke promises that those who make the sacrifices will receive "a multitude" in this life - a more prudent assurance than Mark's hundredfold, houses, brothers, sisters, etc. What Jesus himself will sacrifice is formulated in the third passion prediction. It is very close to Mark's text, even going so far as to predict that the Gentiles will spit on the Son of Man and whip him - something that never happens in the Lucan passion narrative!

         • (18:35 - 19:10) The healing of the blind man as Jesus approaches Jericho is a variant of the healing of Bartimaeus as Jesus leaves Jericho in Mark. Beyond Jesus' kindness to a tax collector considered a sinner, the next story illustrates Luke's attitude toward wealth: Zacchaeus is a rich man, but salvation can come to him because he gives half his possessions to the poor.

         • (19:11-27) The theme of the proper use of wealth continues in the parable of the mines. The story of the nobleman who goes away and gives each of his servants a mine, which one of them turns into ten mines, another into five mines, and a third simply keeps it, resembles the story in Matthew of a man who gives three servants talents, five, two, and one, respectively, which are turned into five more, two more, and simply kept. In each case, the last servant is punished. The thrust of the parable is to encourage the disciples to make profitable use of all that Jesus has revealed to them about the kingdom. Beyond some differences from Matthew, which may represent an edition of a common Q story, Luke seems to have interwoven another story, that of a nobleman who goes to a distant country to receive a kingship: his fellow citizens hated him and sent an embassy to try to prevent him from being appointed king, but he returned as king and killed them. This sets the stage for Jesus' rejection in Jerusalem, his crucifixion as king of the Jews, his return in resurrection and the final destruction of Jerusalem.

   6. Ministry in Jerusalem (19: 28 - 21: 38)
      1. Entry into Jerusalem and activities in the Temple area (19: 28 - 21: 4)
         • (19:28-46) For the entry into Jerusalem, Luke follows Mark, but changes the theme from the excitement of the spectators for the arrival of the kingdom to the disciples' praise of Jesus as king. Luke includes a refrain about peace and glory that resembles the Gloria in excelsis. When the Pharisees want the disciples to be rebuked, Jesus reluctantly predicts the destruction of Jerusalem (the description of this destruction is so accurate that it seems to have been written after its historical destruction by the Romans). The fact that Jesus wept as he spoke this prophecy tells Luke's readers that Christians should not rejoice in this destruction. The sequence ends with the cleansing of the Temple (less violent than in Mark) which takes place on the same day that Jesus arrives in Jerusalem, not the next day as in Mark.

         • (19:47 - 21:4) Jesus now begins to teach daily in the Temple area, provoking questions about his authority. In a typical summary, Luke describes how the chief priests and scribes seek to destroy Jesus for this teaching; then he tells how, frustrated by his popularity with "all the people," the best they can do is to challenge his authority, but must face Jesus' counter-challenge about John the Baptist. The parable of the murderous vinedressers serves as a critique of these authorities, because they have not returned the fruit of the vineyard. To the citation from Ps 118 about the cornerstone, Luke adds his interpretation, which is in fact a threat: "Every man who falls on this stone will be broken, and whoever it falls on, it will crush." The authorities react by spying on Jesus and trying to trap him with a question about tribute to Caesar, which he cleverly avoids. The Sadducees again try to undermine Jesus' authority by asking him a question about the resurrection, but the quality of his answer meets with the approval of even the scribes. Omitting Mark's scene around the most important commandment, Luke continues with Jesus' question about the son of David. These confrontations end with Jesus' scathing condemnation of the scribes. The accusation that they "devour widows' houses" leads to the story of the widow's offering, which, though repeated and shortened from Mark, has a special resonance in Luke, as it favors the poor over the ostentatious rich and illustrates giving all one has.

      2. Eschatological discourse (21: 5-38)
         • (21:5-38) As in Mark and Matthew, admiration for the Temple buildings leads Jesus to predict the destruction of the Temple, which leads to a discourse on the end times, a discourse complicated by the fact that Jesus has already urged eschatological vigilance in 12:35-48 and given eschatological teaching in 17:20-37. In contrast to Mark and Matthew, Luke places the discourse in the Temple as a continuation of his daily teaching there. Here are the particular points of Luke:
           1. 21: 12 speaks of persecution for the "name" of Jesus
           2. 21: 13-15 promises wisdom that cannot be contradicted and that will be given at the time of the testimony
           3. 21: 18 gives additional confidence to the followers of Jesus, for not a hair on their head will perish
           4. 21:20 describes the encirclement of Jerusalem by the armies, an echo of a historical event in the year 70
           5. 21: 24 seems to foresee a long period: Jerusalem will be trampled "until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled".
           6. 21: 28 speaks of a future redemption
           7. 21: 33 and following omit Mark's indication (13: 32) that no one, not even the Son, knows the day or the hour (a reason that Luke reserves until Acts 1: 7, without the limitation of the Son's knowledge)
           8. 21:34-36 is an exhortation that serves to end the discourse as Jesus warns of the coming judgment on the whole earth.

           After this end of the discourse, Luke provides a summary describing Jesus' daily activity as a transition to the passion narrative.

   7. Last Supper, Passion, Death, and Burial (22: 1 - 23: 56)

      We have seen that when Luke follows Mark, he does so with great fidelity; but the passion narrative is an exception. Although many scholars hypothesize a dependence on a pre-Lucan passion narrative distinct from Mark, it is more plausible to think of Luke's dependence on Mark, combined with some particular traditions. In this case, Luke may simply have done more reorganization than elsewhere, perhaps in order to give it more impact. In particular, in both the passion and resurrection narratives, Luke relies on traditions that have also left traces in John.

      1. Conspiracy against Jesus, Last Supper (22: 1-38)
         • (22:1-6) The first Lucan reorganization is illustrated by the conspiracy against Jesus, which Mark interrupts to interject the account of Jesus' anointing, but which Luke maintains as a unit. Luke explains that Satan has entered Judas. After the temptations in the desert, the devil resumed the direct attack on Jesus. Alongside the chief priests, the captains or officers of the temple are also arrayed against Jesus.

         • (22:7-20) For Luke, whose account is twice as long as that of the Synoptics, Peter and John are referred to as the disciples who went to prepare the evening meal in advance. Jesus' sincere desire to have this Passover meal with his apostles reflects the warmth of the relationship, especially now that the hour has come. The clauses that Jesus will not eat or drink again "until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God" or "until the kingdom of God comes" reinforce the eschatological symbolism of the Last Supper, but are obscure in their precise reference. An even greater problem is presented by the fact that Luke has Jesus speak of the cup twice before and after he speaks of the bread. It is likely that the first cup belongs to Luke's description of the ordinary Passover meal, while the second cup, preceded by the bread, belongs to Luke's description of the eucharist. The latter parallels Mark's and Matthew's description of the Eucharist, but it contains the unique words: "(my body) which is given for you; do this in remembrance of me" (similar to 1 Cor 11:24: "my body which is for you; do this in remembrance of me"); and instead of Mark's "the blood of the covenant," Luke says "this cup is the new covenant in my blood which is poured out on your behalf" (similar elements to 1 Cor 11:25). Thus, there may have been two traditions of Jesus' Last Supper, one preserved in Mark/Matthew, the other in Paul and Luke. The Passover feast had a motive of remembrance (anamnesis): "Remember the day of your departure from the land of Egypt all the days of your life" (Deut 16:3), but for Christians this motive is shifted to the remembrance of Jesus. The Lucan clauses in which the body and blood are given or poured out "for you" emphasize the soteriological significance of Jesus' death and of the Eucharist.

         • (22:21-38) Luke's more "orderly" account groups the three predictions about the fate of the disciples at the Last Supper (as does John, whereas Mark/Matthew divide them between the Last Supper and the walk to the Mount of Olives). The prediction of Jesus' abandonment by Judas is essentially a reworking of Mark, except that in Mark it precedes the Eucharistic words. In response to an argument about which of them is the greatest, Jesus praises them for their faithfulness to him in his trials and promises them places at the table in his kingdom and thrones from which to judge the twelve tribes. This is virtually the opposite of the prediction in Mark 14:27 that they will all be scandalized and scattered; and indeed, unlike Mark, Luke will never describe the disciples' flight when Jesus is arrested. Similarly, Luke, in the midst of Satan's efforts to sift all the apostles like wheat, introduces the promise to pray for Simon (Peter) that his faith would not waver. The dialogue that leads to the statement that the apostles have two swords is also unique to Luke. The situation of a mission without provisions is now changed; everyone must be prepared, have a purse, a bag or a sword, because Jesus will have to deal with outlaws. The apostles misunderstand the figurative language, and Jesus responds "enough of this" to their statement that they have two swords.

      2. Prayer and arrest on the Mount of Olives, Jewish and Roman trial (22: 39 - 23: 25)
         • (22:39-46) Luke has no dialogue on the way when he leaves the Last Supper to go to a "usual" place on the mountain opposite Jerusalem, where Jesus prays and is arrested. Luke simplifies Mark's dramatic description of Jesus' estrangement from the disciples, for there is no gradual separation of Jesus from the group of disciples, and then from Peter, James and John. Nor is there any description of Jesus' emotions and his fall to the ground. The Lucan Jesus coolly kneels down to pray (a position familiar to Christians: Acts 7:60; 9:40; 20:36; 21:5); he prays only once (not three times) and finds the disciples asleep only once (and then "in sorrow"). If the appearance of an angel to Jesus was written by the evangelist and not added by a later copyist, Luke differs from Mark/Matthew in providing an answer to Jesus' prayer, which illustrates the closeness of the Lucan Jesus to his Father. While Mark/Matthew spoke of the support of angels after Jesus' temptations in the desert, it is now that Luke describes an angel who strengthens Jesus, preparing him to enter the second and greatest trial or test.

         • (22:47-53) Jesus' words at the time of his arrest show that he knows the evil intention of Judas who embraces him. Picking up on the discussion about swords at the Last Supper, the disciples demonstrate their continuing misunderstanding by asking a question about striking with the sword. This question leads Jesus to tell them to give up the sword, advice that Luke would pass on to Christians facing arrest or persecution in their day. Alone among the Gospels, Luke brings the chief priests themselves to the Mount of Olives; and Jesus reminds them of his daily teaching in the Temple area as a challenge to the armed force used to arrest him. Luke's theology of this scene is that this hour belongs to the power of darkness. Yet even in this moment of despair, Jesus' mercy is shown (in Luke only) when he stops to heal the right ear of the high priest's servant who came to arrest him.

         • (22:54-71) In Mark/Matthew and John, Peter's three denials of Jesus are intertwined in the night scene where Jesus stands before the Jewish authorities; Luke's sense of order leads him to place Peter's denials first, before the Jewish trial, so that Jesus is present in the courtyard while Peter denies him. The poignant moment when the Lord turns and looks at Peter recalls the promise made at the Last Supper that Jesus would pray for Simon Peter that his faith would not fail. Luke also places in the court setting the Jewish mockery of Jesus by those holding him captive, a scene different from Mark/Matthew where the mockery takes place at the end of the Jewish trial by the members of the Sanhedrin. This rearrangement leads Luke to simplify the presentation of the Jewish trial and to set it in the morning. The chief priests ask Jesus if he is the Messiah, the Son of God; but this question is divided into two segments and a direct answer to the first is avoided since Jesus says: "If I tell you, you will not believe me" (characteristics found in John 10:24-25, 33, 36).

         • (23:1-25) The Lucan account of the Roman trial differs significantly from Mark's. A set of accusations is presented to Pilate: Jesus misleads the nation, as evidenced by his refusal to pay taxes to Caesar and his claim to be the king Messiah. Luke knows the pattern of Roman trials, and he fits the tradition about Jesus into this pattern. He emphasizes Jesus' innocence, for on three occasions Pilate declares that he finds no guilt in him. Only Luke reports that Pilate sent Jesus to Herod, an anticipated parallel to Paul's trial in Acts 25-26, where the Roman governor Festus, hands Paul over to the Herodian king Agrippa II for questioning. In both cases, the accused is returned to the governor without having been found guilty. The observation that Jesus' presence before Pilate and Herod healed the enmity that existed between them is particularly Lucan. The Jesus who healed so many people during his public ministry continues to heal throughout the passion. After Jesus' return, Pilate tries twice to free him, even offering the lesser punishment of whipping; but in the end he delivers Jesus "to their will." Luke does not mention the scourging and mocking of Jesus by the Roman soldiers, which is reported in the other three gospels.

      3. Way of the cross, crucifixion, burial (23: 26-56)
         • (23:26-32) In Luke, the Way of the Cross is not simply a transitional episode, but plays a key role in structuring Jesus' death. It first brings together Simon the Cyrenian, a large crowd of people and the "daughters of Jerusalem". And after Jesus' death, he also groups together the Roman centurion, the crowds and the women of Galilee. We have a triptych with the crucifixion in the center and a group of three pro-Jesus parties on either side. Echoing the OT, Jesus' warnings to the weeping daughters of Jerusalem represent a continuation of the theme that Jesus reluctantly announced that the fate of the city was sealed, despite the presence of some sympathizers. The specification "yourselves and your children" recognizes that the burden of the coming catastrophe will fall on another generation.

         • (23:33-46) Luke is the only one to have Jesus speak at the moment of crucifixion: "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing," a word that fits admirably with the Lucan perspective. By taking the group of mockers (the bystanders, the chief priests and the two co-crucified) from Mark's cross, Luke changes the composition; this group is now composed of the leaders, the soldiers and one of the co-crucified. The scene of the good thief is a masterpiece of Lucan theology. Jesus' generosity goes far beyond what the criminal asks for, and he becomes the first to be taken to Heaven! Jesus' final confident words on the cross, "Father, into your hands I commend my spirit" are very different from the plaintive cry of abandonment of Mark's Jesus. All the negative signs that accompanied the crucifixion, including the tearing of the veil of the sanctuary, are placed before Jesus' death, so that the positive and saving results of that death can be clearly seen.

         • (23:47-56) To illustrate the positive results of Jesus' death, Luke recounts the reaction of the three parties to Jesus' death and subsequent burial. The Roman centurion joins his testimony to that of Herod, Pilate and the only co-crucified malefactor: Jesus was a righteous man and did nothing wrong. The crowds express their sadness. The women who follow Jesus stand aside and watch; they will be the link to the future, for they will also attend the burial and come to the tomb. The final touch is to tell us that the women observed the Sabbath law. Luke is very insistent in reporting that at the time of Jesus' birth everything was done according to the Law; throughout his life, Jesus lived within the bounds of Judaism.

   8. Resurrection Appearance in the Jerusalem Area (24: 1-53)

      Luke departs from Mark's indication that the risen Jesus was to appear in Galilee, and concentrates his three appearance scenes around Jerusalem. This tightens the passion sequence. More importantly, Luke is able to end the Gospel where it began, the city that symbolizes Judaism.

      1. At the empty tomb (24: 1-12)
         Although Luke follows Mark, he modifies him considerably, adding details:
         • When the women entered, they did not find the body
         • A dramatic question: "Why do you seek the living among the dead?"
         • An adaptation: not an appearance in Galilee but a memory of what Jesus said there;
         • The women did not keep quiet, but told all the men about it.
         Luke has his own tradition concerning the presence of Joanna (the wife of Chuza). The textually dubious v. 12 is a real novelty, for it records that, although the women were not believed, Peter ran to the tomb, saw only the mortuary wrappings and went home wondering. This account is extremely close to what is reported in John 20:3-10 (without the disciple whom Jesus loved). On the other hand, a little later, the women refer to this visit, but using the plural, which is perplexing: "Some of us went to the tomb" (24:24).

      2. Appearance on the road to Emmaus (24: 13-35)
         This dramatic and very long account of the appearance is entirely Luke's own, although it is taken up in the appendix to Mark (16:12-13). There are some good narrative techniques:
         • the disciples' disappointed hope that Jesus would be the savior;
         • Jesus pretending to want to go further.
         But there are also curious elements:
         • Emmaus, sixty stadia (7 miles) from Jerusalem, is not easy to locate;
         • we know nothing of this Cleopas nor, a fortiori, of his unnamed companion;
         • it is difficult to calculate how the distribution of time at the end of the day is possible;
         • Finally, Luke tells us nothing about the circumstances of the appearance to Simon (Peter) that day before the end of the day.

         It is typically Lucan that the first account of an appearance takes place during a journey; just as much of Jesus' teaching was given on that long journey from Galilee to Jerusalem, so he gives an important revelation to the disciples on the way: he calls on the whole of Scripture to explain what he has done as Messiah, just as the early Christians would do. Yet even though the disciples' hearts glow when Jesus opens up the meaning of the Scriptures to them, they do not recognize him until he breaks the bread. This sets the stage for the breaking of bread (eucharist) in the Christian community described in Acts and may well be the origin of the Christian belief in the presence of the risen Lord in the eucharistic banquet.

      3. Appearance in Jerusalem and ascension to heaven (24: 36-53)
         As in John (and apparently in the appendix to Mark 16:14-18), in Luke's Gospel the first appearance to the disciples takes place in Jerusalem on the evening of the resurrection day. Here are the characteristics that Luke and John share:
         • Jesus stands among them and says to them, "Peace be with you;
         • reference is made to the wounds of Jesus (hands and feet in Luke, hands and side in John);
         • and the mission given by Jesus involves the forgiveness of sins and the role of the Spirit (explicit in John, symbolically referred to as "what my Father has promised" in Luke).
         Luke particularly insists on the reality of Jesus' appearance, because Jesus eats food and claims that he has flesh and bones. Jesus also explains the Scriptures to his disciples, a sign that this is fundamental to understanding what God has done in him. Here the revelation consists of a mission, a mission to all nations from Jerusalem, the more detailed program of which will be given in Acts 1:8. Jesus entrusts his disciples with the mission of being witnesses of these things that have happened to him in fulfillment of the Scripture. Luke had promised at the beginning of the Gospel that his systematic account would be based on what the first eyewitnesses and ministers of the word had affirmed, so it is clear that he believes the disciples have fulfilled their mission. The appearance ends with an ascension scene in which Jesus goes to Bethany, blesses his disciples, and is taken up to heaven. Then the disciples joyfully return to Jerusalem and the Temple, praising God. This ascension scene, which takes place on Easter Sunday night, ends the Gospel story of Jesus. The Gospel began in the Temple, when an angel descended from heaven to Zechariah; by inclusion, it ends in the Temple, when Jesus ascended into heaven.

2. Sources and Compositional Features

   The Gospel is often oriented toward Acts, and this orientation affects Luke's treatment of his sources. For example, instead of offering advanced Christological ideas as in Matthew, Luke delays these confessions until the apostolic preaching in Acts. The emphasis on Pauline travel in Acts influences the use of the setting of the journey from Galilee to Jerusalem to place most of Jesus' teaching there. Sometimes, too, the anticipation of Acts affects the order of the material, as when the Roman governor Pilate sends Jesus back to Herod for a decision, just as in Acts 25 the Roman governor Festus will hand Paul over to (Herod) Agrippa for a decision.

   Let's consider Luke's sources.

   1. Mark

      Table of Luke's Use Of Mark

      Material from Mark in L uke		Major Lucan Interpolations
      Mark 1: 1-15	= Luke 3: 1 - 4: 15
      		4: 16-30 (at Nazareth)
      Mark 1: 21 - 3: 19	= Luke 4: 31-44; 5: 12 - 6: 19	5: 1-11 (catch of fish)
      		6: 20 - 8: 3 (Little Interpolation)
      Mark 4: 1 - 6: 44	= Luke 8: 4 - 9: 17
      Mark 8: 27 - 9: 40	= Luke 9: 18-50
      		9: 51 - 18: 14 (Big Interpolation)
      Mark 10: 13 - 13: 32	= Luke 18: 15-43; 19: 29 - 21: 33	19: 1-28 (Zacchaeus, parable)
      Mark 14: 1 - 16: 8	= Luke 22: 1 - 24: 12

      About 35% of the Gospel of Luke is derived from Mark. According to most scholars, Luke had a written form of Mark before him. His approach is to follow Mark's order and to use his material in large blocks. Yet he omits two sequential sections: the "big omission" of Mark 6:45-8:26 (the section following the first feeding of the crowd up to and including the second) and the "little omission" of Mark 9:41-10:12 (the scandals, teaching on divorce). The reason for these omissions is not entirely clear, but likely factors, in addition to Luke's theological preferences, are a desire to avoid repetition and to fit the material into the intended geographical flow of the story.

      Although in general Luke is quite faithful to Mark, he has made changes that allow us to detect his thinking and preferences.

      1. Luke improves Mark's Greek, i.e. grammar, syntax and vocabulary. For example,
         • in 4,1.31.38 and passim, omitting the overused "immediately" of Mark;
         • in 20: 22, changing a latinism like kēnsos (lat. census : tax to Caesar) of Mk 12: 14 by the Greek term phoros;
         • in 20:23, substituting the more accurate term "craftiness, treachery" for the term "hypocrisy" of Mark 12:15.

      2. As he had promised to write carefully and in an orderly fashion at the very beginning of his Gospel, Luke rearranges Mark's sequence.
         • Jesus' rejection in Nazareth is placed at the beginning of the Galilean ministry rather than after a certain time in order to explain why his Galilean ministry was centered in Capernaum
         • the healing of Simon's mother-in-law is placed before the call of Simon and his companions in order to make Simon's will to follow Jesus more logical
         • Peter's denials of Jesus are grouped together before the Sanhedrin trial, in preference to the complicated interweaving of Mark
         • it avoids the doublet of two feeding of the crowd

      3. Because of the changes made to the material received from Mark, Luke occasionally creates inconsistencies:
         • although in 5:30 the partners in the conversation are "the Pharisees and their scribes", 5:33 speaks of "the disciples of the Pharisees", as if the Pharisees were not present
         • in 18: 32-33 Luke takes from Mark the prediction that the Gentiles will mock Jesus, scourge him and spit on him, forgetting that he will never present such a scene at the passion

      4. Luke has changed Mark's order of Peter's denials and the Jews' mockery of Jesus, but in doing so, after writing "Peter went out and wept bitterly," he forgets to insert Jesus' name in the new sequence that follows ("The men who guarded him mocked him"), so grammatically "him" refer to Peter.

      5. Luke, even more than Matthew, eliminates or modifies passages in Mark that are unfavorable to those whose later careers make them worthy of respect, for example:
         • He omits Mk 3:21.33.34 (the kinsmen say that Jesus has lost his head) and modifies Mk 6:4 (a prophet is despised by his kinsmen) in order to avoid prejudicial references to the family of Jesus;
         • Luke omits Mk 8:22-26 which dramatizes the slowness of the disciples to see, and Mark 8:33 where Jesus calls Peter "Satan";
         • In the passion, Luke omits the predicted failure of the disciples, the fact that Jesus finds them asleep three times, and their flight as reported in Mk 14:27.40-41.51-52.

      6. Christologically, Luke is more reverent about Jesus and avoids passages that might make him appear emotional, harsh or weak, for example:
         • Luke eliminates Mk 1: 41.43 where Jesus is moved to pity or is irritated;
         • He eliminates Mk 4:39 where Jesus speaks directly to the sea;
         • It eliminates Mk 10: 14a where Jesus is indignant;
         • He eliminates Mk 11:15b where Jesus overturns the tables of the money changers;
         • He eliminates Mk 11:20-25 where Jesus curses a fig tree;
         • He eliminates Mk 13:32 where Jesus says that the Son knows neither the day nor the hour;
         • He eliminates Mk 14: 33-34 where Jesus is troubled and his soul is sad to death;
         • He eliminates Mk 15:34 where Jesus speaks of God who has abandoned him.

      7. Luke emphasizes detachment from possessions not only in his special material (L), but also in the changes he makes in Mark, e.g., the followers of the Lucan Jesus leave everything, and the Twelve are forbidden to take even a staff

      8. Luke eliminates the Aramaic names and words transcribed by Mark, probably because they were not meaningful to the intended audience, such as the omission of Boanerges, Gethsemani, Golgotha, Eloi Eloi, lama sabachthani.

      9. Luke likes to clarify some of Mark's information, presumably for better narration, greater effect or clarity, for example:
         • 6:6 states that the following scene took place "on another Sabbath" and that it is "the right hand"
         • 22: 50 states "the right ear"
         • 21:20 clarifies or replaces the "abomination of desolation" of Mark.

   2. Q Source

      Table of passages from Luke with their probable sources

      Legend:
      Green color: Mark
      Blue color: Lucan material or composition
      Pink color: Q Document
      

      Reference	Content
      1: 1 - 2: 52	The Infancy Narrative
      3: 1-2a	Date of Jesus' ministry
      3: 2b - 6	Entrance of John the Baptist
      3: 7-9	Warnings of John the Baptist
      3: 10-15	John the Baptist's instructions; questioning if he is not the Messiah
      3: 16-17	John the Baptist's promise of another to come
      3: 18 - 22	Arrest of John the Baptist by Herod, baptism of Jesus
      3: 23-38	Genealogy of Jesus
      4: 1	Jesus in the desert to be tempted
      4: 2-13	Three temptations (tests) of Jesus by the devil
      4: 14-15	Jesus' debut in Galilee
      4: 16-30	Preaching of Jesus in Nazareth and failure
      4: 31-44	Teaching, healings (demoniac, mother-in-law, many)
      5: 1-11	Miraculous fishing
      5: 12 - 6: 11	Healings (leper, paralytic), call of Levi, meal with sinners, fasting (new/old), plucked ears of corn, healing of paralyzed hand
      6: 12-16	Call of the Twelve
      6: 17-19	Jesus and the crowd
      6: 20a	Jesus looks up to his disciples
      6: 20b-23	Beatitudes
      6: 24-26	Curses
      6: 27-30	Love of enemies; do not resist evil; give
      6: 31	Golden rule: what you want others to do...
      6: 32-33	Love; be merciful
      6: 34-35a	Lend without return
      6: 35b-36	Be merciful
      6: 37a.38c	Do not judge; the measure given is the measure received
      6: 37b.38ab	Forgive; give
      6: 39-40	A blind man as a guide; the disciple and the master
      6: 41-42	A twig in a brother's eye, a beam in his
      6: 43-45	A good tree does not bear bad fruit; a fig does not come from thorns
      6: 46-49	To call me Lord and not to act
      7: 1-2	End of the discourse and entry into Capernaum
      7: 3-6a	The elders of the Jews praise the centurion
      7: 6b-10	The centurion of Capernaum and his servant
      7: 11-17	Resuscitation of the widow's son from Nain
      7: 18-28	Disciples of JB; message for him; praise of JB as more than a prophet
      7: 29-30	The tax collectors justified God, not the jurists and Pharisees
      7: 31-35	This generation is not satisfied with either JB or the Son of Man
      7: 36-50	The forgiven sinner
      8: 1 - 8: 3	The female entourage of Jesus
      8: 4 - 9: 17	Parables: the sower, explanation; Jesus' family; storm calmed; healings (a possessed person, the hemorrhaging woman, Jairus' daughter); mission of the Twelve; Herod and Jesus; feeding of the crowd
      9: 18-50	Confession of Peter and announcement of the passion; following Jesus; transfiguration; healing of an epileptic; 2nd announcement of the passion; question of the greatest; who is not against us...
      9: 51-56	Departure for Jerusalem, bad reception in Samaria
      9: 57-60	The Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head; follow him; let the dead bury the dead
      9: 61-62	Following Jesus without taking leave of his family
      10: 1	Choice of 72 to send on mission
      10: 2-12	Abundant harvest, few workers; mission instructions
      10: 13-16	Woe to Chorazin and Bethsaida; whoever listens to you listens to me
      10: 17-20	Return from mission of the 72
      10: 21-24	Beatitude on the disciples
      10: 25 - 11: 1	Love of God/neighbor; Good Samaritan; Martha and Mary
      11: 2-4	The Lord's prayer
      11: 5-8	Parable of the friend who allows himself to be bent
      11: 9-13	Ask; the Father will give
      11: 14-15	Demons are cast out by Beelzebub
      11: 16	Ask for a sign from heaven
      11: 17-23	A strong man guards his palace; not with me is against me
      11: 24-26	An unclean spirit out of someone comes back and brings seven more
      11: 27-28	Blessed is she who nursed Jesus
      11: 29-32	Looking for a sign; sign of Jonah; judgment on Nineveh; queen of the south
      11: 33-35	Do not put the lamp under the bushel; lamp of the body
      11: 36-38	The body in the light; meal at a Pharisee's house
      11: 39-44	Pharisee practices
      11: 45	A jurist feels insulted
      11: 46-48	Woes addressed to the jurists
      11: 49-52	The wisdom of God; sending prophets; woes to the jurists
      11: 53 - 12: 1	Traps of the scribes and Pharisees; leaven of the Pharisees
      12: 2-10	All will be revealed; testify without fear
      12: 11-12	In the synagogues, the Holy Spirit will help
      12: 13-21	Distance from the goods of this world
      12: 22-31	Do not worry: birds of the air, lilies of the field
      12: 32	Promise of the kingdom to the disciples
      12: 33-34	No treasures on earth but in heaven
      12: 35-38	Parable about vigilance
      12: 39-40	Master of the house and thief
      12: 41	Intervention of Peter: for us the parable?
      12: 42-46	Blessed is the servant who watches
      12: 47-50	We ask more of those who have received much; Jesus brings fire
      12: 51-53	Jesus does not bring peace but the sword; family divisions
      12: 54-56	Interpretation of the signs of the times
      12: 57	Why don't you judge for yourselves
      12: 58-59	Settle before going before the magistrate
      13: 1-17	The urgency of conversion; barren fig tree; healing a woman
      13: 18-21	Parable of the mustard seed; leaven in the flour
      13: 22	Jesus teaches and goes to Jerusalem
      13: 23-29	Narrow gate; act now; possibility of rejection at the judgment
      13: 30-33	Pharisees warn Jesus about Herod's intentions
      13: 34-35	Jerusalem kills prophets, must bless one who comes in the name of the Lord
      14: 1-15	Healing of a man with edema; choosing the last place; inviting the poor
      14: 16-24	Parable of the invitation to the great banquet
      14: 25	Give up everything to follow Jesus
      14: 26-27	Whoever comes must prefer me to his family and must carry a cross
      14: 28-33	Strategy of a tower to be built or a king who goes to war
      14: 34-35	Uselessness of salt that has lost its taste
      15: 1-3	Reproach of welcoming sinners
      15: 4-7	Parable about the lost sheep
      15: 8 - 16: 12	Parables: woman with the lost coin, the lost son and the elder; the clever manager; deceitful money
      16: 13	One cannot serve two masters
      16: 14-15	The Pharisees mock Jesus
      16: 16-18	It is the time of the kingdom; the Law remains; divorce
      16: 19-31	Parable of the rich man and Lazarus
      17: 1	Woe to the tempters
      17: 2-3a	Throw away that which causes scandal
      17: 3b-4	Forgiving a brother; Peter: how often must we forgive?
      17: 5	Increase faith in us
      17: 6	Faith as a mustard seed
      17: 7-22	The servant who does his duty; healing of 10 lepers; we cannot see the kingdom of God
      17: 23-24	Signs of the coming of the Son of Man
      17: 25	Rejection of Jesus by this generation
      17: 26-27	As in the days of Noah, so will the coming of the Son of Man be
      17: 28-29	The fate of Sodom
      17: 30	The day of the Son of Man
      17: 31-32	The day of judgment: do not return home
      17: 33	He who finds his life will lose it, he who loses it will find it
      17: 34-35	The day of judgment will discriminate against two men
      17: 36	The day of judgment will discriminate against two women
      17: 37	The place of the judgment
      17: 38	The place of the vultures
      18: 1-14	Parables (unjust judge; the Pharisee and the tax collector)
      18: 15-43	The children; the rich man and wealth; 3rd announcement of the passion; healing of the blind man of Jericho
      19: 1-11	Zacchaeus; proximity to Jerusalem
      19: 12-27	Parable of the mines
      19: 28	Jesus goes up to Jerusalem
      19: 29-40	The entry of the Messiah King into Jerusalem
      19: 41-44	Announcement of the punishment on Jerusalem
      19: 45 - 21: 33	Temple vendors driven out, question about Jesus' authority, murderous vinedressers, tax due to Caesar, Sadducees and resurrection, Messiah son of David, warning against scribes, poor widow's offering, apocalyptic speech
      21: 34-38	Call to vigilance and last days in the temple
      22: 1-14	Conspiracy, preparation of the Passover
      22: 15-18	A first cup
      22: 19-20	The second cup
      22: 21-24	Announcement of Judas' betrayal; introduction to the greatest
      22: 25-27	The greatest must serve
      22: 28	The disciples stayed with Jesus
      22: 29-30a	Reward for the Twelve
      22: 30b	The disciples will sit on thrones
      22: 31-32	Warning to Peter
      22: 33-34	Announcement of Peter's denial
      22: 35-38	The hour of battle approaches
      22: 39 - 23: 5	Gethsemane; arrest of Jesus; denial of Peter; Jewish and Roman trial
      23: 6-16	Appearance before Herod and return before Pilate
      23: 17-26	Condemnation by Pilate; Simon of Cyrene
      23: 27-32	The women of Jerusalem weep
      23: 33-38	The crucifixion
      23: 39-43	The two thieves
      23: 44-56	The death of Jesus and his burial
      24: 1-12	The empty tomb
      24: 13-53	The disciples of Emmaus; appearance to the Eleven; ascension to Bethany

      The material from the Q Document makes up just over 20% of Luke; it adds an ethical dimension to the portrait of Jesus. Unlike Matthew, who moves the material from Q to form five major sermons or discourses, Luke would mostly preserve the original order of the Q document. Occasionally, Luke inserts Q material within a block borrowed from Mark, such as the teaching of John the Baptist. Most of the Q material, however, he inserts mostly in two places where he deviates from the Marcan sequence, i.e., a small set of Q material in the block 6:20 - 8:3, which is part of the "small interpolation," and a larger set of Q material in 9:51 - 18:14, which is part of the "large interpolation" (Jesus' long journey to Jerusalem). In both cases, he mixes it with other elements that are particular to him. When he takes the Q Document, Luke adapts it in many ways. However, since we do not have the original version of the Q Document, it is often difficult to know whether Matthew or Luke made a change. The parables of the great meal and the talents/mines, where the two accounts differ so much, illustrate the difficulty of knowing exactly what Luke changed.

   3. Special Lucan Material (often designated L)

      Between one third and 40% of Luke is not from Mark or Q. This fact poses problems. First, it is extremely difficult to decide how much of the material the evangelist freely composed himself, and how much he took from either oral traditions or written sources. Secondly, when the author has taken over material, it is not easy to distinguish pre-Lucan oral traditions from pre-Lucan written sources. It is likely that Luke knew some oral traditions about the origins and death of Jesus and about John the Baptist, but it is unlikely that he had written sources about Mary or John the Baptist, or a complete passion narrative other than Mark. There is some agreement between Luke and Matthew in relation to Mark, but there is no convincing evidence that Luke knew the Matthean gospel. There are clear parallels between Luke and John, but this does not mean that Luke knew the Johannine gospel; rather, some similar traditions have reached both.

      However, biblical scholars have rightly postulated the existence of certain written sources for the Gospel. For example:

      1. a collection of ancient hymns or canticles (Magnificat, Benedictus, Gloria in excelsis, Nunc dimittis) ;
      2. a story of Jesus at the age of twelve - an example of a larger genre of childhood stories of Jesus;
      3. a Davidic genealogy of popular origin in circulation among Greek-speaking Jews;
      4. a group of special parables, which could have included the following
         • the good Samaritan,
         • the persistent friend,
         • the rich man who needs to enlarge his barn,
         • the sterile fig tree,
         • the lost coin,
         • the prodigal son,
         • Lazarus and the rich man,
         • the dishonest judge,
         • the pharisee and the publican ;
      5. a group of miracle stories, which may have included the following:
         • the miraculous catch,
         • the resuscitation of the widow's son,
         • and the healings of the crippled woman on the Sabbath, of the hydropic man, and of ten lepers.

      In addition, and independent of written sources, the author seems to have had particular elements of oral tradition or information about John the Baptist (family origins), Mary the mother of Jesus, Herod Antipas, and the Galilean women disciples. Some of this information probably comes from people the author mentions, e.g., knowledge about Herod (9:7-9; 13:31-32; 23:6-12) from Manaen, a childhood companion of Herod the tetrarch, who was part of the church at Antioch (Acts 13:1).

      Let us remember that the evangelist did much more than collect and organize disparate materials. At the very beginning of his work, Luke speaks of an ordered narrative, and everything he received or composed was woven together to create an epic vision that begins in the temple in Jerusalem and ends in the imperial court in Rome. This epic can be read for itself without any knowledge of the sources, and that is probably how it was heard or read by early audiences. Luke is a gifted storyteller, displaying, for example, true artistry (the beautifully balanced infancy narrative), and presenting scenes of exquisite tenderness (the "penitent thief"). His choice or creation of material L includes some of the most memorable passages of all the Gospels, for example the parables of the Good Samaritan and the prodigal son. Dante aptly described him as "the scribe of Christ's gentleness"; more than any other evangelist, Luke gave the world a Jesus to love.

3. Authorship

   In the second half of the 2nd century (the title in papyrus P⁷⁵, Irenaeus, Muratori fragment), this book was attributed to Luke, Paul's companion. Three references in the NT (Phlm 24; Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11) speak of him as a beloved companion and physician who was faithful to Paul during a final imprisonment. The way Col 4:11 is worded, i.e., all the men listed before this verse are of the circumcision, suggests that Luke who is listed after this verse is not a Jew. The NT information is greatly enhanced by the assumption that Luke was part of the "we", i.e. a form of self-reference in some passages of Acts where Paul does not travel alone (e.g. in the period 50-63). Outside the NT, a late 2nd century prologue adds that Luke was a Syrian from Antioch who died in Boeotia, Greece. Scholars are about equally divided on whether this attribution to Luke should be accepted as historical, so that he would be the author of Luke-Acts.

   The main objection to attributing the author to a companion of Paul comes from Acts in terms of historical and theological differences/discrepancies with the Pauline letters. Whether or not the author of the Gospel was a companion of Paul makes little difference, for in either case there would be no reason to consider him a companion of Jesus; therefore, as a second or third generation Christian, he would have had to depend on traditions provided by others.

   What can we infer from the Gospel about the evangelist? The latter is included among those who received the knowledge of the events transmitted by the first eyewitnesses and ministers of the word. Of the four evangelists, he has the best command of Greek and uses several styles with ease. In Acts, he demonstrates a knowledge of the rhetorical conventions of Greek historians and some knowledge of Greek literature and thought. It is not certain that he knows Hebrew or Aramaic, but he certainly knows the Septuagint, as can be seen not only in his citations from Scripture but also in his extensive use of the Septuagint style in appropriate parts of his work. This knowledge of Greek has led many to believe that the evangelist was a pagan convert to Christianity. However, his knowledge of the Old Testament is so detailed that others have argued that he must have come to Christ with a Jewish background. Yet the error concerning the purification of Jesus' parents in Lk 2:22 ("their" wrongly implies the purification of the father) is implausible from one who grew up in a Jewish family. A solution that does justice to both sides of the question is to assume that the evangelist was a Gentile who had become a proselyte or God-fearer, i.e., that he had been converted or drawn to Judaism some years before he was evangelized.

   Luke is imprecise about Palestinian geography; this seems to rule out his being a native of Palestine (but also seems to call into question whether he could have been the "we" companion who seems to have spent the years 58-60 there). The knowledge of the church at Antioch set forth in Acts 11:19-15:41 (ending about 50) has been advanced to support the tradition that he was an Antiochian. Many believe that the Eucharistic formula of 1 Cor 11:23-25, which Paul says he received from tradition, came from the practice of the church in Antioch from which Paul was sent on his missionary journeys. Several attempts have been made to establish that the evangelist was a physician, pointing to the technical medical language and perceptions introduced in the material taken from Mark. However, it turns out that Luke's expressions are no more technical than those used by other learned Greek writers who were not physicians.

4. Locale or Community Involved

   The tradition that Luke was a companion of Paul raises the probability that Luke-Acts was addressed to the churches that emerged from the Pauline mission. Specifically, the 2nd century Prologue records that the Gospel was written in Greece (Achaia) and that Luke died there.

   From the internal evidence of Luke's two-volume work, the concentration of the latter half of Acts on Paul's career makes it likely that the recipients were in some way connected with that apostle's proclamation of the gospel message. If Matthew was written to the church at Antioch, it is highly unlikely that Luke was addressed to the same church. An address to Rome has sometimes been suggested because Acts ends there, but Rome in the Acts finale is primarily symbolic as the center of the Gentile world. Moreover, if the Gospel was written after the year 70 in Rome, one would have expected some echo of Nero's persecution in the mid-60s. To narrow the field, the last lines of Acts (28:25-28), attributed to Paul, indicate that the future of the gospel lies with the Gentiles, not with the Jews. This would be strange if Luke were addressing a largely Jewish Christian audience. Luke's references to the synagogue have a different tone than Matthew's. Whereas for Matthew the synagogue has become a foreign institution, in Luke the synagogue has always been a foreign institution. Luke drops Mark's Aramaic expressions and place names, as well as local color references (mud roofs, Herodians) as if they were not understood, and substitutes what would be more intelligible to people of Greek origin. Characteristics of the presentation of Jesus reflecting the pagan world have been detected in the Gospel, for example, the preface to an infancy narrative dealing with the childhood and youth of Jesus gives the Gospel the appearance of a Hellenistic biography. Jesus' speeches at a banquet have been compared to those of a sage at a symposium. The resistance to depicting Jesus as suffering during the passion corresponds to a Hellenistic resistance to depicting emotions. All of this would make sense if Luke-Acts was addressing a largely pagan region evangelized directly or indirectly by the Pauline mission. Of course, this description could fit many places. Specifically, the ancient tradition that it was written in and for a region of Greece would fit this internal evidence and may find some confirmation in Acts 16:9-10, which depicts Paul's movement from Asia Minor to Macedonia as dictated by divine revelation. We have spoken of a region; for rather than thinking of Luke's intended audience as a single house church or even as living in a single city, we should perhaps think of Christians of similar origin spread over a large area.

5. Purpose

   This highly disputed question is closely linked to that of the recipients: much depends on the relations with the Romans and the Jews that are described. Biblical scholars have proposed various hypotheses:

   • Since Luke's Pilate declares Jesus not guilty three times, Luke would have tried to persuade Greco-Roman readers that the Jews were totally responsible for the crucifixion? Unfortunately, Acts 4:25-28 clearly blames Pilate.
   • Since Acts ends with Paul being taken to Rome as part of an appeal to the emperor, it has been suggested that the author was considering a defense brief for Paul. Unfortunately, if this were the case, would Luke not then have reported the results of Paul's trial in Rome?
   • Another proposal is that through some of his descriptions of Roman officials (e.g., Gallio in Acts 18:14-15), Luke would have tried to persuade Roman officials to treat Christians fairly. Unfortunately, Luke also describes weak Roman officials who are intimidated by Jewish leaders.

   A more plausible suggestion is that Luke's writings could help Christian readers/listeners in their own self-understanding, especially when slanders were circulating among non-believers, whether Jews or Gentiles. Christians needed to know that there was nothing subversive in their origins, nothing that would bring them into conflict with Roman governance, and that it was wrong to equate Jesus and his immediate followers with the Jewish revolutionaries who had led the Roman armies into war in the late 1960s. As for the relationship between Luke's audience and the Jews who did not believe in Jesus, his presentation of the role of the (Jewish) people in the Lucan passion is more nuanced and favorable than in the other gospels, and in Acts he presents many Jews as coming to believe in Jesus.

   In Luke's three stages of salvation history, the Gospel comes after the Law and the Prophets because Jesus is faithful to Israel; in him God has not changed the divine plan but has fulfilled it. Acts is the third stage because the Spirit who comes after Jesus' departure makes the ministry of the apostles the legitimate continuation of Jesus' proclamation of the kingdom. The revelation to Peter about Cornelius, the calling of Paul by Jesus, and the agreement of Paul, Peter, and James in Jerusalem legitimize Paul's ministry to the Gentiles as part of that continuation. By divine providence, a gospel that began in Jerusalem, the capital of Judaism, finally arrived in Rome, the capital of the Gentile world. The Gentiles addressed by Luke-Acts could therefore be assured that their acceptance of Jesus was neither an accident nor an aberration, but part of God's plan going back to creation, a plan that ultimately includes the conversion of the entire Roman world. Moreover, although they were evangelized by those who had not seen Jesus, the gospel they received was from "eyewitnesses who became servants of the word." Thus, it was not apologetics against opponents, but assurance to fellow Christians that was the goal, as the author himself indicated at the beginning: "so that you may see the soundness of the teachings you have received" (Luke 1:4). If the author was a Gentile Christian addressing other Gentile Christians, he wrote with the assurance that "they will listen" (Acts 28:28).

6. Date of Writing

   The same ancient Prologue that places Luke's recipients in Greece tells us that Luke's age at death was eighty-four and that he wrote after Matthew and Mark. That Luke used Mark is very plausible from the internal evidence; and if Mark is to be dated to the period 68-73, a date earlier than 80 for Luke is unlikely. Luke's consistent pessimism about the fate of the Jewish leadership and Jerusalem makes it likely that Jerusalem had already been destroyed by the Romans in 70.

   Much of the objection to a date later than 80 stems from the fact that Acts ends around 63 with Paul's two years of imprisonment in Rome, and from the claim that if Luke had written much later, he would have reported Paul's later career and death. However, this objection probably misunderstands the purpose of Acts, which was not to recount Paul's life but to dramatize the spread of Christianity, culminating in the symbolism of the great missionary's coming to Rome, capital of the Gentile empire. Moreover, the perspective of Acts 28:25-28, where Paul now turns to the Gentiles after his failure with the Jews, is so different from that of Romans 9-11, c. 57/58, where Paul still hopes for the conversion of the Jews, that it is difficult to imagine a date in the early 60s for Acts.

   How long after 80 Luke-Acts was it written? The Gospel's symbolic interest in Jerusalem as a Christian center does not correspond to the perspectives of second-century Christian literature. For Asia Minor and especially for Ephesus, the author of Acts seems to know only of an ecclesiastical structure composed of presbyters (Acts 14:23; 20:17). There is no sign of the developed model of a bishop in every church, so clearly attested by Ignatius for this region in the decade before 110. Nor does the author of Acts show any knowledge of Paul's letters, which were collected in the early second century. In the range between 80 and 100, in order to preserve the possibility that there is some truth in the tradition that the author was a companion of Paul, the best date seems to be 85, give or take five or ten years.

7. Issues and Problems for Reflection
   1. A particular textual problem affects the interpretation of Luke 22:19b-20 ("'This is my body given for you. Do this in memory of me.' And as for the cup, he did the same after the meal..."), and 24: 3b.6a.12.36b.40.51b.52a (the women and Peter at the tomb, the ascension) and perhaps other verse, which are absent from the usually longer Western family of textual witnesses. Today, the majority of biblical scholars accept these disputed verses, in part because P⁷⁵, the oldest known manuscript (early 3rd century) of Luke, published in 1961, contains them.

   2. "Glory to God in the highest, and peace on earth to men of good will" (2: 14). In the second clause there are four elements, the first three of which are uncontested ("on earth", "peace [nominative]", "to men [dative]"). For the fourth and last element, the oldest and best Greek passages, followed by the Latin Vulgate, read a genitive of eudokia, "good will, favor", which leads to the classic Roman Catholic translation: "and on earth, peace to men of good will". The known secondary manuscripts of the King James translators read a nominative, and Luther preferred it because he avoided any suggestion that God granted peace in proportion to human merit, hence the classic Protestant translation, "and on earth peace, good will toward men." Modern biblical scholars, rejecting the nominative, have sought to solve the theological problem by appealing to Hebrew and Aramaic expressions found at Qumran: "a man/children of his good will", so that the Lucan genitive eudokia could mean not "of [human] good will" but "of [God's] favor," extending peace to those favored by God.

   3. Peter's confession appears in all four gospels and illustrates theories of inter-gospel relationships:
      • Mk 8:29: "You are the Messiah"
      • Mt 16:16: "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God"
      • Lk 9:20: "The Messiah of God"
      • Jn 6:69: "You are the Holy One of God"

      In the two-source theory, Matthew and Luke developed Mark in different ways. In Griesbach's hypothesis that Matthew was written first, Mark, using Matthew and Luke, chose the one element common to both. Those who argue that Luke knew Matthew believe that he shortened the Matthean formula, perhaps under the influence of Mark's shorter form. The likelihood of a special relationship between Luke and John might explain the genitive ("of God") in both. In Jn 1:40-42 Andrew calls his brother Simon (Peter) and says to him, "We have found the Messiah," and it is on this occasion that Jesus gives him the name Peter; and in Jn 11:27 Martha confesses, "You are the Messiah, the Son of God." Is all this due to John's knowledge of the Synoptics or to common traditions that fed into the formation of the Synoptic and Johannine gospels?

   4. Luke presents texts that illustrate the complexity of the notion of the kingdom of God. There is ambivalence about whether this notion speaks of kingship or a kingdom, whether and to what extent this reality has come and/or is yet to come, and whether it is visible or invisible.
      • In 13: 24.28.29, images like the door, the table and the expulsion from the kingdom are used
      • In 9:27, there are those who stand here and will not taste death until they see the kingdom of God. Yet in 17:20-21, Jesus argues that the coming of the kingdom is not a matter of observation that would allow one to say, "It's here or there."
      • In 11:2, the disciples are taught to pray for the kingdom to come. In 10:9, the disciples are told to proclaim in the cities they visit: "The kingdom of God has come near"; in 11:20, Jesus says that if by the finger of God he casts out demons, "the kingdom of God has come to you"; and in 11:21, he says: "The kingdom of God is in/among you"; in 21:31-32 (the eschatological discourse), seeing the signs of the last times, we can say: "The kingdom of God is near"; and all this will happen before this generation passes away.

      This diversity of views reflects the problem of both future and realized eschatology in the NT.