Among the Pauline writings, only Romans can compete with Ephesians as a candidate for the greatest influence on Christian thought and spirituality. Indeed, Ephesians, which has been called the "crown of Paulinism," is more attractive to many because it spares them the complex argumentation of Romans. Ephesians' magnificent vision of the universal church and unity among Christians is particularly attractive for an ecumenical age. The author has been called the supreme interpreter of the apostle and "Paul's best disciple".

Who is this writer? As early as the 16th century, it was noted that the letter to the Ephesians, with its heavy sentences, was very different from Paul's main letters and it was thought that it might be the work of someone else. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, arguments against Paul's authorship were presented with increasing systematization. Yet even in the 20th century there were major defenders of Paul as a writer. It can be estimated that today about 80% of critical scholars argue that Paul did not write Ephesians.

1. General Analysis of the Message
   1. Opening Formula: 1: 1-2

      Paul is a prisoner for the Lord (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and Tychicus is sent to tell the recipients about him (6:21-22). Otherwise, there is no story in Ephesians relating Paul's past relationships with the recipients or details about them.

      The recipients "the saints who are also faithful in Christ Jesus" could be any Christians, although the mention of Tychicus (see Col 4:7-8) probably means that the Christian communities in western Asia Minor are those known to the author. Although he says in 3:13 that he offers his sufferings for them, Paul does not describe any distressing details of his own situation or any imminent danger threatening the recipients. Rather, there is a relaxed tone of accomplishment and encouragement.

   2. Thanksgiving: 1: 3-23

      In 1:3-14, the first part of the thanksgiving, using the quasi-liturgical language found in Jewish blessings, Paul celebrates the role of Christ and Christians in God's plan to unite in Christ all things in heaven and earth. In this mystery of God's will, even before the creation of the world, God destined Christians to "sonship" in Jesus Christ; and they have redemption through his blood, forgiveness of their sins, and the riches of grace. They have heard the word of truth, the gospel of salvation. Then (1:15-23), Paul gratefully acknowledges the faith and love of the recipients and prays that they will grow in the knowledge of the exalted Christ who has been placed above all powers, now and forever. And all this is for the Church, his body, the fullness of him who fills all in all. Thus, Paul sees the Church as a goal in God's plan, which involves the whole of creation - a Church, therefore, that has a future dimension.

   3. Body:
      1. 2:1 - 3:21: Pauline indicative (instructions)

         This section begins by explaining how this plan, manifesting the richness of God's mercy and love, has converted sinners into saints, the spiritually dead into the spiritually alive, now saved by faith, which is the gift of God (2:1-10). Furthermore, 2:11-22 lyrically describes how God's grace has reached the Gentiles, so that those who were once far away have been brought near. The dividing wall of hostility has been broken down, and the community of Israel and the Gentiles are now one. They are fellow citizens of the house of God, built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ as the cornerstone (2:20). In 3:1-12, Paul explains to his listeners why this is particularly significant: By revelation the mystery was made known that God had made him, the least of all the saints, a minister of the gospel to the Gentiles, who are joint heirs, members of the same body and partakers of the promise. Indeed, through the church, the wisdom of God is now known to the heavenly powers. Paul offers his imprisonment and prayers (3:13-19) that the Christian recipients may understand the love of Christ manifested in all this - a love that surpasses knowledge - so that they may be filled with the fullness of God. Paul ends this indicative part of the letter with a doxology, almost as if the mere thought of Christ causes him to praise God (3:20-21).

      2. 4:1 - 6:20: Pauline imperative (paraenesis and exhortations)

         This section explains the implications of this great plan of God with thirty-six imperative verbs. In 1:4, Paul said that God chose us "in Christ" before the foundation of the world to be holy and without blemish in the divine presence. In 4:1, he gives guidelines for living a life worthy of such a calling. First, Paul sets forth seven manifestations of unity in the Christian life (4:4-6). He goes on to show how the ascending Christ has poured out a variety of gifts to equip Christians to build up the body of Christ: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers (4:7-12). When such gifts were discussed in 1 Corinthians 12, they divided Christians; now, without having to correct people, Paul can proclaim that they help "the saints" to attain unity of faith, the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ, and thus to grow in Christ, the head of the body (4:13-16).

         Since Gentiles and Jews have been made one, Gentile Christians are no longer in dark ignorance and cannot live in the impurity and lusts of their former life (4:17-24). In 2:15, Paul spoke of the work of Christ who created a new human being from a Jew and a Gentile, and now he instructs this new human being not to live according to the old pattern of life. The rules of a new life reflect the requirements of the Ten Commandments on how not to treat others (4:25 - 5:5). Paul sees two contrasting ways of "walking," corresponding to light and darkness, the devil and the Holy Spirit, truth and falsehood. This dualism produces children of light and children of disobedience (5:6-20), wise and unwise. Christians who have been called saints in 1:1 must not take part in the fruitless works of darkness. The "Awake, thou that sleepest" of 5:14 is probably taken from a hymn. Rather than having fun, Christians are to sing and make melodies for the Lord.

         Eph 5:21 - 6:9 specifies the Christian way of life in terms of a domestic code for wives/husbands, children/fathers, slaves/masters. The general pattern of submission/obedience in the first part, and the obligation in the second part (to whom submission is due) to model Christ's characteristics are the same as in the domestic code of Col 3:18 - 4:1; but the code of Eph 5:21 is a third longer than that of Col, and there are interesting differences. Ephesians 5:21 begins with the instruction to be subject to one another out of reverence for Christ; and, of course, this applies to husbands toward wives, as well as wives toward husbands. Thus, the opening of this code changes the established order more radically than did Col's code. The lyrical language of 5:25-27 (sometimes thought to come from a baptismal hymn) introduces Christ and the church into the relationship between husband and wife, so that submission and love respectively receive a specifically Christian stamp. The husband's obligation to love is treated more thoroughly than the wife's obligation to be submissive, and both are rooted in God's original plan for the union in marriage (5:31 = Gen 2:24). The instruction of children/fathers is also reinforced by an OT motif. Ep's change in the slave/master relationship is largely found in the section on the master: not only is the master to be impartial in his treatment of slaves, as in Col, but he is to refrain from threatening - reminding us that Christ is the master of the master. The radical thrust of the gospel is to pressure those in authority and power.

         Using the figurative language of armor and weapons, a final exhortation concerns the ongoing battle with principalities and powers (Eph 6:10-20). We have heard that the exalted Christ has been seated above all these powers (1:20-21) and that God's mysterious plan for all has been revealed to them through the church (3:9-10). Yet we now discover that this realized eschatology has not entirely replaced the future eschatology, for the divine struggle with the present powers and rulers of darkness continues. Paul asks for prayers for himself that in this struggle he may be allowed to proclaim the mystery of the Gospel. The magnificent final description of himself as "ambassador in chains" (6:20) sums up the motive for triumph with God's help; no human hindrance can prevent Paul from pursuing the vocation he announced at the beginning: "apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God" (1:1).

   4. Concluding Formula: 6: 21-24

      The minimal greetings refer to a companion, Tychicus, who is sent to the recipients as in Col 4:7-8.

2. Ecclesiology of Ephesians and Early Catholicism

   The exaltation of the church, which goes beyond Col's already high exaltation, deserves special comment. Although Col has a universal concept of "the Church," half of its four uses of ekklēsia concerned the local Church (4:15,16); there is no such local reference in the nine uses of Eph. They are all in the singular and refer to the universal Church. As in Col 1:18, 24, the Church is the body of Christ and he is its head (Eph 1:22; 5:23). However, in Eph 1:22; 5:23, the church has a cosmic role. According to the most common interpretation of 1:21-23, Christ was made head of all things (including angelic powers) "for the sake of the church," and through the church (3:10), God's wisdom is manifested to these powers. Glory is given to God in the church (3:20). Christ loved the church and gave himself up for it (5:25) - which is different from the idea that Christ died for sinners (Rom 5:6,8) or for everyone (2 Cor 5:14-15). Christ's purpose was to sanctify the Church, purifying her by washing her with water and the word, thus making her without spot or blemish. He continues to nourish and cherish her (Eph 5:23-32).

   This is an appropriate time to briefly mention the issue of "early Catholicism", which Eph's ecclesiology is meant to illustrate. This term refers to the initial stages of high ecclesiology, sacramentalism, hierarchy, ordination and dogma - in short, the beginning of the distinctive features of Catholic Christianity. In fact, there may be an "early Catholicism" in the NT itself, these developments are not necessarily normative for Christianity. One could speak of a "canon within the canon," i.e., the entire canonical NT is not an infallible authority, but one must distinguish the true Spirit within the NT.

   There is, however, an arbitrariness in this kind of judgment, for it asserts the right to reject those voices of the NT with which one disagrees. Other Christians and even churches may be less explicit in their judgment; but in fact, even if only through a lectionary, all tend to give more weight to some parts of the NT than to others. A church that insists on Eph's ecclesiology, for example, most likely does so because its own high ecclesiology resembles it. In any real solution, it must be recognized that there are significant differences between the books of the NT on issues such as ecclesiology, sacramentalism, and church structure. A church (or a Christian) may make a theological decision to give preference to one view over another. However, an awareness of what is said in the NT on the other side of an issue can change some of the exaggerated or objectionable aspects of its own position. Repeating the NT passages that support our views may give us comfort, but listening to the scriptural voices on the other side allows the NT to act as a conscience.

3. To Whom and By Whom?
   1. To Whom?

      The address is textually dubious; indeed, the italicized phrase in 1:1b, "To the saints who are at Ephesus and/or also (to) the faithful in Christ Jesus," is absent from the major manuscripts. Other factors also call into question whether the letter is addressed to the Christians in Ephesus. In most of his letters, Paul mentions relevant personal circumstances or previous activities, and towards the end he usually includes greetings from and to named persons who are significant to the community he is addressing. Such greetings are absent from the letter to the Ephesians, except for a reference to Paul's chains and Tychicus (6:20-21). Paul had spent some three years in Ephesus" (54-57 AD; Acts 20:31), so it is almost inconceivable that in a friendly letter to the Christians of that city he would not have included some greetings and reminiscences. Moreover, in Eph 1:15 the author says: "I have heard of your faith in the Lord Jesus." In 3:2, he assumes that the recipients have "heard" about his stewardship of God's grace, and in 3:7-13, he explains his ministry to them. How could Paul speak so indirectly about his relationship with the Ephesian Christians? Ephesians 2:14 seems to take the breaking down of the wall of enmity between the community of Israel and the Gentiles as an accomplished fact; it is not clear that this was accomplished in Ephesus or in the other Pauline mission communities during Paul's lifetime. Indeed, since Ephesus never mentions the Jews and 2:11 is addressed to "you Gentiles in the flesh," one gets the impression that Eph is addressing an entirely Gentile community. This hardly corresponds to the situation envisaged in Acts 19:10 in the mid-50s, when the Ephesian mission had converted "Jews and Gentiles alike". Thus, of the thirteen NT letters that bear Paul's name, Eph, the least situational, is perhaps the only one that was not directed to a more specific destination than to Christians (probably mainly in Asia Minor) in general who considered Paul a great apostle.

      The fact that the epistle may be addressed to any or all of the saints in Jesus Christ has led a number of scholars to envision it as a circular letter intended to be read in many different cities, with a blank space left for the individual site name to be filled in each time. However, there is insufficient evidence for the use of such letters in early Christianity, especially for the idea of the blank space. A more common approach is that another genre of literature was adapted to the letter form.

   2. By Whom? The Relationship To Col

      Comparative table of the themes of Ephesians and Colossians

      	Topic	Eph	Col
      1	Redemption, forgiveness	1:7	1:14.20
      2	The all-inclusive Christ	1:10	1:20
      3	Intercession for the readers	1: 15-17	1: 3-4.9
      4	Riches of a glorious inheritance	1:18	1: 27 (hope of glory)
      5	Christ's dominion	1: 21-22	1: 16-18
      6	You he made alive	2:5	2:13
      7	Aliens brought near	2: 12-13	1: 21-22
      8	Abolishing the commandments	2:15	2:14
      9	Paul the prisoner	3:1	1:24
      10	Divine mystery made known to Paul	3: 2-3	1: 25-26
      11	Paul, minister of universal gospel	3:7	1:23.25
      12	Paul to make known the mystery to all	1: 8-9	1:27
      13	Lead a life worthy of your calling	4:1	1:10
      14	With all lowliness, meekness, patience forbearing one another	4:2	3: 12-13
      15	Christ unites members of church	4: 15-16	2:19
      16	Put off old nature and put on new nature	4: 22-32	3: 5-10.12
      17	No immorality among you	5: 3-6	3: 5-9
      18	Walk wisely and make the most of the time	5:15	4:5
      19	Sing songs, hymns, and spiritual songs, giving thanks to God	5: 19-20	3: 16-17
      20	Tables of household duties for husbands, wives, children, parents, slaves, and masters	5: 21 - 6: 9	3: 18 - 4: 1
      21	Paul the prisoner exhorts persistence in prayer	6: 18-20	4: 2-3
      22	Tychicus sent to inform church about Paul and lo encourage them	6: 21-22	4: 7-8

      If Eph is not really a letter to the Christians in Ephesus but a more general sort of work, who wrote it? In the previous chapter we discussed in some detail the question of whether Paul wrote Col and found that the evidence favored, but not conclusively, an author other than Paul. Strikingly, Eph resembles Col in its general structure and verbal parallels. This can be calculated in a variety of ways, for example, between one-third and one-half of the 155 verses of Eph are parallel to Col, both in order and in content. A quarter of the words in Eph are found in Col, and a third of the words in Col are found in Eph. The table above shows the parallel topics. Inevitably, the vocabulary, style, and theological arguments that have been made against the Pauline writing of Col have been made against the Pauline writing of Eph. The vocabulary argument that Eph has some eighty words not found in the undisputed Pauline letters loses much of its force when one realizes that one can find about the same number of words in Gal, which roughly matches Eph in length and in the number of various words it uses. Other data are more notable: a flourishing style is similar to Col, but even more expansive and hyperbolic (e.g., nearly fifty uses of "all"), producing remarkably long sentences such as Eph 1:3-14 and 4:11-16.20 There are stacked adjectives and genitives, as well as a style and redundant terms quite unusual in Pauline use of uncontested letters. There are also differences between Col and Eph, which complicate the judgment about the author. The letter to the Ephesians is longer and contains elements that Col lacks, for example, much of the hymn in Eph 1:3-14 and the parenesis in 4:1-14. On the other hand, the attack on false philosophy in Col 2 and the long series of greetings in Col 4 are missing in Eph. Common motifs such as "body", "head", "fullness", "mystery" and "reconciliation" often have a somewhat different tone in Eph. In discussing the message, we have seen other differences, for example in household codes and ecclesiology.

      Although some scholars continue to accept Paul as the author of Ephesians, the strength of the evidence has caused 70-80% of critical scholars to reject this view, including a significant number who believe that Paul wrote Col. Within this percentage, most would assume that the author of Eph is different from the person who composed Col.

   3. By Whom? The Relationship To The Other Pauline Letters

      On a much smaller scale than the similarity between Eph and Col, parallels between Eph and the other Pauline letters have been recognized. The most impressive are with Rom, 1-2 Cor, and Gal. If Paul wrote Eph, he may have drawn on his earlier writings (if they were available to him in prison); however, would he have been likely to reuse them in this way? We have seen that, in a sense, Rom is the first commentary on Gal, but Paul's use of themes from Gal in Rom represents the refinement of his own ideas by an innovative thinker faced with a new situation. Most scholars would interpret the reuse of the Pauline letters in Eph as a more secondary procedure.

      Several explanations have been proposed for the origin of the letter, some more fanciful than others. For example, the slave Onesimus was freed by Philemon and returned to Ephesus to become a bishop several decades after Paul's death. Interest in Paul would have been catalyzed by the publication of the Acts of the Apostles, which prompted Onesimus to gather copies of the letters in Ephesus and to compose from them the letter to the Ephesians as a summary of Paul's ideas, placing it at the head of the collection. The particular proximity to Col would then be explicable because, after the letter to Philemon, it is the letter in which Onesimus was most interested, having accompanied Tychicus who brought it to Colossae.

      But these explanations are based almost entirely on supposition and have few followers. Other hypotheses identifying the author as a known disciple of Paul include Timothy because he is considered the scribe who wrote Col, Tychicus because he is mentioned in both Col and Eph, and Luke because of a proposed connection between Eph and Acts. It should be noted that such proposals often involve a disciple of Paul working with Pauline letters collected in Ephesus. The theory of a pseudonymous Col postulates the existence of a Pauline school in Ephesus, a member of which composed Col in the 80s, using the basic material of Phlm. This school may well have been the context in which Paul's letters were collected. A plausible theory would therefore be that, on the basis of the undisputed Pauline letters, and in particular Col (which had been composed in the school earlier), someone in the Ephesian school of Paul's followers produced Eph as an encouraging representation of aspects of Pauline thought. If "in Ephesus" was missing in the original, it may have been added in a copy by a scribe who knew that the composition of the letter was related to that city. It is generally thought that the reminiscence of Eph 5:25,29 in the letter written by Ignatius around 110 to Polycarp (5:1), bishop of Smyrna, 35 miles north of Ephesus, makes it possible to date a pseudonymous Eph 5:25 to the 90s. It is also likely that in the 90s there was at least an emerging collection of Paul's letters on which the author of Eph 5:29 could have drawn.

4. What Genre?

   We spoke earlier of "another genre of literature adapted to the epistolary form" and of "an encouraging representation of aspects of Pauline thought." The similarities to a letter are marginal; but the ancient Greek epistolary form went beyond letters in the strict sense, so that Eph could almost function as a speech or address to the audience of the Pauline churches. It may be a piece of writing that straddles the divide between "epistles" and "letters." Many scholars have tried to be precise, assuming that the minimal elements of the epistolary format (1:1-2 and 6:21-22) borrowed from Col are only incidental to the message. Theological tract, manifesto, meditation and homily are some of the descriptions offered. There are, in fact, passages in Eph that summarize characteristic Pauline thought, e.g., 2:8-10; however, Eph is hardly a complete summary, since only a few aspects, such as unity, triumphal ecclesiology and exalted Christology, are emphasized.

   Those more interested in formal analysis have focused on Eph's tone of praise and have spoken of epidictic rhetoric, that is, a letter that uses praise as the basis for an appeal (often to a more authoritative audience). Paul, however, is a superior figure, an idealized holy apostle as the "prisoner" of Christ in 3:1; 4:1. What he writes is not so much a praise of the recipients as an enthusiastic assessment of what has been accomplished in Christ for all Christians and, indeed, for the whole universe. Rather than an appeal, he encourages growth in the Christian life, that is, general exhortations not motivated by specific problems.

   A strong context of communal prayer has been detected in Eph. In this vein, another thesis finds baptismal language in 1:13-14; 4:5,30; 5:8,26 and would see Eph as a more complete teaching to those who have been recently baptized, hence the encouraging tone. The proximity of Eph to 1 Peter, often seen as a baptismal homily, has contributed to this thesis. The fact that the first half of Ephesians (the "doctrinal" section) begins and ends with a doxology and prayer has suggested to some a liturgical context.

   Conclusion

   Without being too precise about the exact literary form, we can make the following observations.

   • Paul's undisputed letters of the 50s show a man grappling with the question of Christ's return and the general fate of Christians, as well as with Jewish Christians who insisted on circumcision for Gentiles and the works of the Law. For those who believe, he invokes a Jesus who was put to death for their sins and resurrected for their justification. Most Jews did not accept Jesus' claims, but Paul proclaimed that they would eventually do so. Although he was successful among the Gentiles, he reminded them that they were but a wild olive branch grafted onto the tree of Israel. Believers are united in the (resurrected) body of Christ, having been baptized into him; and they should live in expectation of Christ's return at the sound of the trumpets.

   • In Eph, these struggles seem to have been overcome, and Paul's mission triumphs. The one who described himself as the least of all the apostles (1 Cor 15:9) is now described as the least of all the saints (Eph 3:8). His career is seen as an integral part of God's mysterious plan for the whole creation in Christ (3:1-12). The Paul of Ephesians received an understanding not only of the redemption accomplished by the crucifixion/resurrection, but also of God's complete plan in which all things in heaven and on earth are subject to an exalted Christ and united in him. This is seen in the Church which is now seen as the masterpiece of Christ's fulfillment, since Jews and Gentiles, without losing their own identity, have been united in the Church. Paul's Eph does not need to emphasize the second coming because so much has already been accomplished in Christ.

   Can this perspective be verified in the last years of Paul's life? We do not know what happened to Paul in terms of theological change in the 60s just before his death, but in many ways the perspective of Eph is certainly different from that of the last undisputed letters. It is more likely, then, that we should see Eph as a continuation of the Pauline legacy in the midst of his disciples who came to see how the unified church of Jews and Gentiles (now existing in some places in Asia Minor?) fit into God's plan and brought the gospel proclaimed by Paul to its culmination. One of the disciples had written Col a decade earlier (the 80s) to correct a dangerous teaching in the Lycos Valley. But that danger had now passed (perhaps because of Col's influence); and another writer, delighted to experience a unified church, wanted to share with all the saints the developments in Paul's Christology and ecclesiology that made such a magnificent result possible. Many of Col's ideas have been taken and blended with ideas from letters written by Paul himself, to give the fullest expression of the Pauline vision of the place of Christ and the church in God's plan.

   For some, an epistle not written by Paul himself loses much of its authority. However, a thesis in which it emanates from a school of Paul's disciples, besides firmly rooting the work in the Pauline heritage, glorifies the apostle by the quality of his disciples. During his lifetime, he attracted a number of truly distinguished collaborators in the preaching of the Gospel: Timothy, Titus, Silvanus, Luke, Aquila, Priscilla, etc. In the last third of the first century, they, along with others not listed, continued his work and applied his ideas to new problems, just as the apostles continued and developed the work of Jesus. In considering the role of the Deutero-Pauline letters, one can think of the historical prophet Isaiah who was not diminished because, for two centuries after his death, his image inspired prophets to write in his tradition and to add their work to his as part of Isaian prophecy.

5. Background of the Ideas

   If we accept that "at Ephesus" is a later addition, there is little in the letter that tells us about the context of the recipients, and there is no clear indication that the thoughts expressed in Eph were intended to correct their erroneous ideas or the bad influences they were under. In practice, then, our discussion will focus on the context of the author's ideas. Some of his emphasis are an echo of Col's response to false philosophy, which would explain, for example, Eph's exalted Christology and the subjugation of principalities, powers and the devil. But what about other ideas, e.g., the emphasis on the church and cosmic unity, the dualism between the children of light and the works of darkness (5:8-10), and the ascension of Christ above the heavens (4:8-10)?

   The usual range of Greek philosophies is offered. Those who have seen a Gnostic influence in Col (on the false philosophy or on the author) tend to see a Gnostic influence here, in terms of either the author's use of Gnostic language and thought to counter heresy, or the development of a Christian Gnosticism as the best way to explain Christ's role in the world. They claim that the Jesus of Eph became a Gnostic redeemer who, instead of tearing down the wall that separated the heavenly world from the earthly world, tore down the wall of separation between Israel and the Gentiles (2:14-16) and has now returned to the heavenly world to bring out of this world those who were prisoners of it (4:9-10). Incorporation into the body of Christ has been compared to the Gnostic theme of incorporation into the cosmic body of the heavenly man. However, most of the data on Gnostic ideas are later than the first century, and some of the analogies are exaggerated. There are also emphasis in Ephesians that would be rejected by many later Gnostics, for example, that God created the world and planned to redeem it by the blood of Christ (Eph 3:9; 1:7-10), and that marriage between a man and a woman is something sacred and willed by God (Eph 5:21-33). At most, one could admit the possible influence on Eph of elements that would eventually be woven together in Gnostic systems.

   Other scholars propose a Jewish background for some of the author's ideas. Eph is much more Semitic than the undisputed Pauline letters. For example, parallels have been detected in the literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls, both in hymnal style and in theological content. The theme of mystery, which appears six times in Eph, is close to the image of the mysteries in the Qumran literature. Here, too, we find a dualistic image of the world dominated by the spirits of light and darkness, even though Ephesians 6:12 speaks of "the rulers of the world of this darkness." The Qumran literature describes the sons of light who walk in the light as distinct from the sons of darkness who walk in darkness, just as Eph 2:2 speaks of the sons of disobedience. We also find in the rules of the Qumran community codes of behavior comparable to Eph's domestic code. Elsewhere in Judaism, the theme of cosmic unity in a body has some parallel in Philo's thought, where the world is a body with the Logos at its head. On the whole, then, Eph's perspective can be explained by the fact that the author drew on Scripture, on developments in Jewish thought in the Hellenistic world, and on Christian beliefs, especially as expressed in the Pauline tradition. It is therefore not necessary to consider pagan mystery religions or Gnosticism as a major formative factor.

6. Issues and Problems for Reflection
   1. Eph 2:19-20 describes Christians as "fellow citizens with the saints and members of the family of God, built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone." In 1 Corinthians 3:10-11, Paul says, "I have laid a foundation... No one can lay a foundation other than the one laid, which is Jesus Christ." The difference regarding the foundation in these two statements has been an argument for postulating that Eph was written by a disciple of Paul rather than by Paul. Passages such as Mt 16:18; Rev 21:14; Mt 21:42; Acts 4:11; 1 Pet 2:4-8 show that both interpretations of the foundation image were known outside the Pauline circle. Do the two interpretations lead to different images of the Church?

   2. All foundational images have been criticized as being too static. Whether Christ is a cornerstone or a foundation, this image depicts him primarily as a supporter of the church, but not as a doer of it. The image of John 15, which presents Jesus as the vine giving life to the branches, is more effective in conveying the idea that Jesus is a dynamic presence. Yet Ephesians 2:21-22 immediately follows the foundation and cornerstone image with images of growth (a plant) and building (a building) of a dwelling place of God. What aspects of the church emerge from this combination?

   3. 1 Cor 12:28 lists God's appointments in the church as follows: "First the apostles, second the prophets, third the teachers, then the miracles, then the gifts of healing, of counseling, of administration, of various kinds of tongues." In Eph 4:11, Christ gives apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors (shepherds) and teachers. Is the transition from God to Christ significant? Did the functions or ministries become more complicated in the interval between 1 Cor and Eph, or were evangelists and pastors already present under the vague Corinthian description of administration? How do evangelists differ from apostles (see Acts 21:8; 2 Tim 4:5)? In 1 Pet 5:1-4, Peter, an apostle, plays the role of pastor (see also Jn 21:15-17).

   4. Eph 4:4-6 lists seven factors ("one body...") that bind Christians together. How many of these factors are still shared by Christians, even in a divided Christianity? Is the failure to mention "one eucharist" significant, for example, that the eucharist was a factor of disunity (see 1 Cor 11:17-22)? It was also noted that the phrase "one church" is not mentioned. However, is there any evidence, either in the undisputed Pauline letters or in Eph, that Pauline thought would have tolerated disunited churches?

   5. Ephesians 5:21-32 attests to a high spiritual esteem for marriage, comparing it to the relationship between Christ and his body which is the Church, a relationship that is part of the divine mystery. "Christ loved the Church and gave himself up for her to sanctify her, having cleansed her by the washing of water in the word, that he might present the Church to himself in her splendor, without spot or wrinkle... holy and without blemish. holy and without blemish." With adaptation, this imagery should be applicable to the Christian husband and wife. Is this very lofty view of marriage reconcilable with 1 Cor 7:8, which emphasizes that single people should remain single (as Paul did)? The latter was governed by a strongly apocalyptic view in which the things of this world are passing away, whereas Eph gives voice to a realized eschatology in which the community is made up of married families. Elements of both attitudes are found in the teaching of Jesus (Mt 19:5-9,12); and Christians have sought to preserve both by privileging celibacy for the sake of the kingdom and by extolling marriage as a sacrament or state of life blessed only by God.

   6. In Col 1:13,16; 2:10,15 and Eph 1:21; 2:2; 3:10; 6:12, we hear of forces called rulers/principalities, princes, powers, authorities, thrones, dominions/lordships. A particular combination appears in Eph 2:2: "the ruler of the power of the air". These forces are related to everything in heaven and on earth and under the earth in Phil 2:10; and to the angels, principalities and powers in Rom 8:38; and to every principality, authority and power in 1 Cor 15. Usually evil, or at least likely to be understood as rivals of Christ, they are superhuman (angelic or diabolic [Eph 6:11]) and have some kind of control over human destiny, perhaps because they are somehow attached to the planets or stars. How does the Pauline view of Christ's superiority over them relate to the synoptic gospel image of Jesus casting out demons as a manifestation of the coming of the kingdom? A modern demythologizing interpretation would see them as powerful earthly agents who seek to dominate people's lives (government, army, etc.), but does such a reduction to human tyranny retain what the Pauline authors intended to convey? Ephesians 6:12 explicitly distinguishes between a struggle against the principalities, powers and dominators of the present world through this darkness on the one hand, and a struggle against flesh and blood on the other.