Of the twenty-seven books of the NT, half bear the name of Paul, all in the form of letters. Of these books, seven Pauline (or proto-Pauline) letters, considered undisputed by biblical scholars, were probably the first books of the NT to be composed. This is partly because the early Christians believed that Christ would soon return and therefore only "immediate literature" dealing with existing problems was important. Yet the letters continued to be written even when the more permanent literature (Gospels, Acts) began to be produced. Indeed, in the table of contents of printed Bibles, twenty-one of the twenty-seven books of the NT are considered "letters" or "epistles"-a surprising statistic considering that none of the forty-six books of the OT bear this designation.

In the canonical order accepted in modern Bibles, all the letters of the NT, which by name or history are associated with apostles, come after the Acts of the Apostles. The thirteen letters/epistles that bear Paul's name come first. They are divided into two smaller collections: nine addressed to communities in geographical locations (Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philipians, Colossians, 1-2 Thessalonians) and four addressed to individuals (1-2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon). Each collection is arranged in descending order of length. Next are the Epistles to the Hebrews, long associated with Paul, then the so-called Catholic Epistles, associated with James, Peter, John and Jude. The first three are in the order of their names as described by Galatians 2:9, followed by Judas (Jude) who is not mentioned by Paul.

1. Classification
   1. Letter or epistle
      For many, these terms are interchangeable. But some biblical scholars have introduced a distinction between these two terms.
      1. An epistle would be an artistic literary exercise, usually presenting a moral lesson to a general audience, and intended for publication

      2. A letter would be a non-literary means of communicating information between a writer and a real correspondent separated by the distance that separates them

      By this criterion, of the twenty-one NT compositions, all or most of the thirteen associated with Paul, as well as 2-3 John, could be classified as "letters," while Hebrews and perhaps 1-2 Peter, James, 1 John and Jude would be "epistles". Today, however, almost all scholars would qualify such a distinction. Ancient rhetoric textbooks show a wide range of types of Greco-Roman letters, e.g., letters that convey praise, corrections, arguments, information, etc. Several of Paul's letters (I Cor and Rom) are so long that they could be classified as epistolary essays. As for the audience, it is not clear that the Pauline writings or even the so-called "Catholic" (or "general" or "universal") writings are addressed to Christians all over the world (even though some of them could easily serve all Christians). We will therefore attribute the title of "letter" to writings that are clearly so. As for 1 John, Ephesians, Hebrews, James, Jude, and 2 Peter, we will give the title both "Letter" and "Epistle," placing first the designation that does more justice to the work.

   2. The different ways of writing
      Letters could be written in a variety of ways, sometimes in the sender's own handwriting, sometimes under dictation. In the latter case, each syllable might be copied out by a writing secretary, with the intervention of an editor to correct clumsiness; or, after the sender had indicated only the broad outlines of the message, greater formulating authority might be given to a scribe, who was almost a co-author, to create the final form. As for Paul, he may have written a short letter like Philem entirely in his own hand (v. 19). References to lines written in Paul's own hand in a longer letter (1 Cor 16:21; Gal 6:11; 2 Thess 3:17; Col 4:18), however, suggest that the rest of the letter was written by another author; and explicitly Rom 16:22 has greetings from "Tertius who wrote the letter." (See also 1 Pet 5:12 where Peter writes "by Silvanus"). In all of this, however, we do not know to what extent Paul would have literally supplied words to the scribes (and thus whether he was working with secretaries or co-authors). It is possible that he dictated some letters exactly and left some freedom in others, for example in Col, whose style is very different from that of the proto-Pauline letters.

   3. The presence of rhetoric
      The NT letters, especially the Pauline letters, were intended to be read aloud for the purpose of persuasion. Therefore, like speeches, they can be judged as rhetoric, depending on the authority of the author, the quality of the writing, and the intended effect on the audience. In particular, rhetorical criticism would pay attention to how material was selected and structured in a letter and how it was expressed (both in vocabulary and organization) so that it would be easily understood and remembered.
      Aristotle (Ars rhetorica 1.3; #1358b) distinguished three modes of argumentation in rhetoric
      1. Judicial or forensic argumentation, as found in the courts. Sometimes, for example, Paul is aware of the charges brought against him by those who oppose his policy on circumcision and the Mosaic Law and defends his ministry and what he has done in the past.

      2. Deliberative or incentive (parenetic) argumentation, as found in public or political assemblies that debate what is appropriate for the future. It attempts to persuade people to make practical decisions and to do things. In writing to Corinth, Paul insists that if his letter is not received, he will come and argue in person (2 Cor 13:1-5).

      3. Demonstrative or epidictic argumentation, as in speeches given at a public celebration. It is intended to please or inspire people, to affirm common beliefs and values, and to gain support for current endeavors. Paul often writes to encourage his converts, praising their faith and observance.

      4. However, one should be cautious about attempts to detect sophisticated rhetorical patterns. There is no way to be sure that Paul was aware of and/or consciously followed classical rhetorical analyses. The various forms of argumentation may simply have been unconscious responses to what needed to be done. Or, alternatively, certain features may reflect OT patterns, e.g., the argumentative and exhortative atmosphere (resembling forensic and deliberative rhetoric) in some passages of Paul's writing may be affected by covenantal trials in which God brings the chosen people to justice: Isa 3:13-15; Micah 6:1), not (only) by Greco-Roman rhetoric

2. Format

   The Hellenistic world has left us many Greek and Latin letters of literary quality, as well as papyrus fragments containing thousands of letters from Egypt dealing with the concerns of ordinary life (business, legal matters, friendship and family). Letters tend to follow a fixed format, and one who does not know this format can seriously misinterpret a letter.

   1. Opening Formula (praescriptio)

      The opening formula of the Greco-Roman letter consisted of three basic elements (sender, addressee, greeting), although sometimes another element extends the greeting, for example, the addressee is remembered, or the addressee is wished good health and the writer's own (good) health is mentioned.

      1. Sender (Superscriptio)

         This is the author's personal name, sometimes accompanied by a title to establish the author's authority. Although in 1-2 Thessalonians we find simply "Paul", nine times he identifies himself as "an apostle of/by Christ Jesus", twice as "a servant of Christ Jesus", and in Titus also as "a servant of God". 2 and 3 John are anomalous in that they use a title ("the presbyter") for the sender without attaching a personal name. Eight of the thirteen Pauline letters name co-senders in various combinations: Timothy (in six), Silvanus (two), Sosthenes (one). Particular relationships with the communities addressed are not sufficient to explain the inclusion of these names; in one way or another, the co-authors contributed to the composition of these writings.

      2. Addressee (Adscriptio)

         The simplest form is a personal name; but in the few NT letters and those written after the apostolic period to individuals, an additional identification is provided (e.g., "to Polycarp who is a bishop") and/or an expression of affection (e.g., "to the beloved Gaius" in 3 John). The addressees of most NT letters and letters after the apostolic period are communities located in specific regions. In five Pauline letters (1-2 Thess, 1-2 Cor, Gal), the recipients are identified as "church"; in four (Phil, Rom, Col, Eph), as "saints" - note that the communities in Colosse and Rome were not founded by Paul. The addressee in 2 John, "a chosen lady," is probably a symbolic designation of a church, but the letter is atypical in that it does not specify where the church is located.

      3. Greeting (Salutatio)

         Sometimes it was omitted. Jewish letters of the time tend to replace the "greeting" (Greek chairein = latin ave, "by "peace" (reflecting the Hebrew shālôm) and to be more expansive in describing the people involved, e.g., "Baruch son of Neriah, to the brethren carried away captive, mercy and peace" (2 Baruch 78:2). Some NT examples have the chairein For example, Jas 1:1: "To the twelve tribes of the Diaspora, greetings". Yet neither the Jewish "peace" nor the Greek "greetings" used alone are typical of the NT letters, for they employ a combination of two or three nouns such as "grace, peace, mercy, love," characterized as coming from God the Father (and Jesus Christ) - as is the case with almost all the Pauline letters. 2 John has "grace, mercy and peace" but, quite unusually, as a statement of an existing Christian fact rather than a wish. 3 John has none of this and really lacks a greeting.

      4. Remembrance or Health Wish

         Here is an example of an opening formula in a Greco-Roman letter: "Serapion, to his brothers Ptolemy and Apollonius, greetings. If you are well, that would be excellent; I myself am well." In 1 Thess, the remembrance is part of the thanksgiving rather than the opening formula; for after "we give thanks" in 1:2, the letter continues in 1:3 with "remembering before our God and father your work of faith." 3 John gives the best and only clear example of an opening health greeting in a NT letter: "Beloved, I hope you are in good health." Although devoid of reminders and health wishes, most NT letters develop one or another element of the opening formula by attaching the high status and privileges of Christians. Rom, Titus and 2 Tim expand the designation of the sender in this way, e.g., Paul "set apart for the gospel of God...". 1 Corinthians and 1-2 Peter expand the description of the recipient, e.g., "To the exiles of the diaspora," chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father through the sanctification of the Spirit...". Gal expands the greeting: "Grace and peace from the Lord Jesus Christ who gave himself for our sins..."

   2. Thanksgiving

      In Hellenistic letters, the opening formula is often followed by a statement in which the sender thanks the gods for specific reasons, such as deliverance from a calamity. 2 Macc 1:11 provides a good Jewish example: "Having been saved by God from grave dangers, we thank God greatly for taking our side against the king." Sometimes there is a prayer for such care to be continued. A different pattern appears in the Pauline thanksgiving (which is missing in Gal and Titus). The introductory formula is usually, "I/we give thanks to (my) God because..." The specific reason for the thanks is not deliverance from disaster but the faithfulness of the community addressed, and the supplication is for that faithfulness to continue. Often, some of the main themes of the body of the letter are briefly anticipated in the thanksgiving. Thus, admonitions may appear in this section, or a specific parenetic (exhortatory) tone. In 2 and 3 John, there is no expression of thanks after the opening formula, although the Johannine expressions of joy serve much the same function as a thanksgiving, i.e., that of a compliment putting the readers in a benevolent mood to receive a message (in the body of the letter) which may contain a request or even a warning.

   3. Body or Message
      1. Body-Opening

         Since this element introduces the occasion for writing the letter, it tactically tends to proceed from an allusion to what is common in the relationship between the writer and the recipient. Thus, there is a fairly narrow range of opening phrases in the body of secular letters: "I want you to know that..."; "Don't think that..."; "Please don't..."; "I regretted (or was astonished, or rejoiced) when I learned that you..."; "I/you have written previously about..."; "I am appealing to you...."

         Equivalent formulas are found in the opening of the body of the Pauline letters. In general, they imply the expression of an inaugural joy, mainly at the announcement of the well-being of the recipients. In Phil 1:4, there is joy in praying for the recipients; in 2 Tim 1:4, the sender looks forward to seeing the recipient so that he may be filled with joy; in Philem 7, the sender has already derived joy from the recipient's love. In James 1:2-3, the author tells the recipients to consider trials as a joy, because trials produce constancy. In 2 Jn 4 and 3 Jn 3-4, the prescriber rejoices in the blessed state of the recipients (who walk in the truth) - a subject that appears in the thanksgiving of the Pauline letters.

         Another feature of the body opening, transitional to the main message, is a petition or request, usually located at the beginning of the body of the letter and includes the following: (a) A context for the petition in terms of joy about the recipient's condition, (b) the petition itself in terms of one of the four request verbs, (c) the recipient in the vocative form, (d) an expression of courtesy, (e) description of the desired action.

      2. Body-Closing

         The other segment of the body of a Greco-Roman letter that has predictable characteristics is the closing. Here, the author consolidates or recapitulates what has been written in the body, creating a bridge to further correspondence or communication. In the papyri and Pauline letters, characteristics of this segment include: (a) a statement of why the letter was written - the motivation; (b) an indication of how the recipients should respond - either a reminder of responsibility (often in the papyri) or an expression of trust (often in Paul); (c) a proposal for further contact through a visit, emissary, or continued correspondence. This last feature has an eschatological function for Paul, since it is through it that the judging or consoling apostolic authority will be made present to the recipients. The aspects of "apostolic parousia" imply the hope of being able to visit (with the possibility of being delayed by an impediment) and a reference to the mutual benefits and joy that will result.

         Some Pauline formulas clearly illustrate these characteristics: "I myself am satisfied about you, my brothers.... But I have written to you boldly on certain points to remind you... that, by the will of God, I may come to you with joy and take some rest with you" (Rom 15:14.15.32). "I write to you trusting in your obedience: I know that you will do more than I say. At the same time, prepare a place for me: for I hope, through your prayers, to be restored to you" (Philem 21-22). While scholars consider the promised visit to be part of the closing of the body of the letter, in Paul's case it is not normally the very last element of the body (before the concluding formula) but comes earlier. In letters where there is a conflict in the community addressed, the promise of an apostolic visitation may be followed by a parenesis and an exhortation. For example: "I will visit you after I have passed through Macedonia... Watch, stand firm in the faith and be courageous" (1 Cor 16:5.13); and "I am writing this while I am away from you, so that when I come I will not have to be severe..." Correct your ways, listen to my call" (2 Cor 13:10-11). We find the bodily embrace in 2 John 12 and 3 John 13-14, where the presbyter promises a personal visit. In 2 John, the purpose of the visit is "to complete our joy"; in 3 John, there are two references to a visit: in v. 10, the presbyter is going to accuse Diotrephes; in v. 14, he longs to speak to Gaius face to face.

   4. Concluding Formula

      Two conventional expressions mark the end of a Greco-Roman letter, namely a wish for good health and a farewell note. An example of the brevity of the latter is given by the last two lines of Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 746: "For the rest, take care of yourself in order to remain in good health. Farewell". In Roman times, the expression of greetings becomes a third usual feature. In this area of epistolary format, the Pauline letters do not follow normal conventions, for Paul never concludes with a wish for health or a farewell. Instead, the greetings come from the collaborators who accompany him and are addressed to people he knows in the community he is addressing. For example: "Greet all the saints in Christ Jesus; the brothers who are with me greet you; all the saints greet you, especially those who are from Caesar's house" (Phil 4:21-22); and "All those who are with me greet you; greet those who love us in the faith" (Titus 3:15). In both 2 and 3 John, greetings are sent to the recipient from the community from which the letter originates, and 3 John wants the beloved ones addressed to be greeted "each by name".

      In addition to greetings, Paul's closing formula sometimes contains a doxology (Rom 16:25-27; Phil 4:20) and a blessing of the recipients. In eight of the Pauline letters, the blessing is a slight variation of this general form: "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you"; but five letters have a shorter form: "Grace be with you." These characteristics are also found in the concluding formulas of other NT letters; indeed, Heb and 1 Pet. have both greetings and a blessing, while a doxology is found in Heb 1-2 Pet and Jude, 3 John and 1 Pet have "peace" instead of "grace"; and the combinations "peace" and "grace" in Eph 6:23-24 and "peace" and "mercy" in Gal 6:16 confirm that "peace" was an alternative blessing in the concluding formulas of Christian letters.

      In four of the Pauline letters (1 Thessalonians, 1-2 Corinthians, Romans) and in 1 Peter, the greeting is to be "a holy kiss". Although kisses are not unusual between family members, Greco-Roman society was reticent about public kissing. They are most often depicted in scenes of reconciliation or of parents meeting after a separation. Throughout his ministry, Jesus and his disciples are not depicted exchanging a kiss, but the fact that Judas used it in Gethsemane in a context where he did not wish to alert Jesus may mean that it was a normal greeting in the group, and the kiss as a greeting is certainly attested to in the Bible (Gen 33:4; 2 Sam 20:9; and Lk 15:20). Clearly, the Christian community had adopted the kiss as a sign of fellowship; it was holy because it was exchanged among the saints.

      As noted above, Paul is sometimes careful to include a line indicating that he is writing in his own hand. At least for the four longest letters in which he does so (1 Cor, Gal, 2 Thess, Col), in addition to suggesting that the rest of the letter was physically written by someone else, these lines may imply that Paul checked the whole thing so that he would be justified in sending it in his own name.

3. How This Volume Will Treat the Individual Letters

   Recall that the three Johannine letters were treated earlier following the Gospel according to John. The thirteen letters/epistles that bear Paul's name will be treated in both topical and chronological order, as far as the latter can be determined. We will begin with the proto-Pauline group (i.e., surely written by Paul) in the order 1 Thess, Gal, Phil, Philem, 1-2 Cor, and Rom, followed by the deutero-Pauline group (possibly or probably not written by Paul himself) in the order 2 Thess, Col, Eph, Titus, 1-2 Tim. The so-called "Catholic" (or "general", or "universal") letters will be treated in Part IV, beginning with the epistle to the Hebrews, which is not by Paul but which has often been considered Pauline.

   An important general rule is that all scripture references in a chapter refer to the letter being discussed in that chapter, unless otherwise noted. Generally, the treatment begins with a background subsection that traces the earlier history of Paul's relationship with the community he is addressing (or what we know about Peter, James and Jude in the case of the Catholic letters). Next, the general analysis of the message will summarize the main points of the letter. Since the letters vary greatly in both content and tone, the "Analysis" subsection will vary in its approach. The number and topics of the following subsections (author, dating, unit, special topics, etc.) will be dictated by the character of each letter. Most often, these letters address the needs and problems of individual Christian communities in the first century. Therefore, the subsection "Questions and Problems for Reflection" is especially important for the NT letters, as this is where the relevance for today's life will be discussed.