1. Poetic Format

   In some sections there is a formal poetic style, even marked by strophes, for example the Prologue and perhaps John 17. But the question raised here is much broader: we are dealing with a solemn pattern unique in the Johannine discourses that some would call semi-poetic. The characteristic feature of this poetry would not be the parallelism of the lines (as in the OT) or the rhyme scheme, but the rhythm, i.e. lines of approximately equal length, each constituting a clause. Whether or not one agrees that the speeches are printed in poetic form, the fact that Jesus speaks more solemnly in John than in the Synoptics is obvious. One explanation is inspired by the OT: the divine word (God through the prophets or the personified divine Wisdom) is poetic, marking a difference with the more prosaic human communication. The Johannine Jesus comes from God, so it is appropriate that his words are more solemn and sacred.

2. Misunderstanding

   Jesus, the Word made flesh, must use language from below to convey his message. To deal with this anomaly, he frequently uses figurative language or metaphors to describe himself or to present his message. In the ensuing dialogue, the questioner will misunderstand the figure or metaphor, and will retain only a material meaning. This allows Jesus to explain his thought in greater depth and thus unfold his doctrine.

3. Twofold meanings

   Sometimes by playing on misunderstandings, sometimes by simply showing the multifaceted aspect of revelation, we can often find a double meaning in the words of Jesus:

   1. First, there are word games about meaning based on either the Hebrew or the Greek; sometimes the interlocutor can take one meaning, while Jesus hears the other: "lifted up" (crucifixion and return to God); "living water" (water that flows and water that gives life); "die for (instead of or in the name of)

   2. Then there are several levels of meaning in the same story or metaphor. Thus, there is one meaning appropriate to the historical context of Jesus' public ministry, but there may be a second meaning reflecting the situation of the believing Christian community. For example, Jesus' prediction that the Temple sanctuary would be destroyed and replaced in 2:19-22 is reinterpreted to refer to the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus' body. The discourse on the bread of life seems to refer to divine revelation and wisdom in 6:35-51a and to the eucharist in 6:51b-58. The image of the Lamb of God may have had three different meanings: apocalyptic lamb, paschal lamb, and suffering servant who went to the slaughter as a lamb)

   3. There are also duplicate speeches. Sometimes a speech by Jesus seems to say essentially the same thing as a speech already reported, sometimes to the point of matching one verse to the next. An editor, working on the basic gospel, would have found other versions of speeches in the tradition that duplicate in part the versions the evangelist had included and added them in an appropriate place lest they be lost.

4. Irony

   A particular combination of twofold meaning and misunderstanding is found when Jesus' opponents make statements about him that are derogatory, sarcastic, disbelieving, or at least inadequate in the sense that they mean it. However, through irony, these statements are often true or more meaningful in a sense that the speakers do not realize ("Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who comes from God..." 3:2; "Are you greater than our father Jacob..." 4:12; "Is this not Jesus, the son of Joseph?" 6:42; "Is he going to join those who are scattered among the Greeks?" 7:35; "Are we [the Pharisees] by any chance blind, too?" 9:40-41; "It is to your advantage that one man should die for the people and that the whole nation should not perish" 11:50.)

5. Inclusions and Transitions

   Inclusion refers to John mentioning a detail (or hinting) at the end of a section that corresponds to a similar detail at the beginning of the section. It is a way of wrapping up sections by linking the beginning and the end. Large inclusions are 1:1 with 20:28; 1:28 with 10:40; small inclusions are 1:19 with 1:28; 2:11 with 4:54; 9:2-3 with 9:41; 11:4 with 11:40. As for transitions from one subdivision of the Gospel to the next, the evangelist likes to use a "pivotal" ("hinge") pattern or section: a pattern concludes what comes before and introduces what follows. For example, the miracle at Cana concludes the call of the disciples in chapter 1 by fulfilling the promise of 1:50, but also opens the next subdivision of 2:1 - 4:54, which goes from the first miracle at Cana to the second. The second miracle of Cana concludes this subdivision, but by emphasizing Jesus' power to give life (4:50), it sets the stage for the next subdivision (5:1-10:42) where Jesus' authority over life will be challenged.

6. Parentheses or Footnotes
   John frequently provides parenthetical notes,
   • explaining the meaning of Semitic terms or names (e.g., "Messiah", "Cephas", "Siloam", "Thomas"),
   • providing a context for developments in the story and for geographical features (e.g., "he did not know where the wine came from," 2:9; "John, indeed, had not yet been thrown into prison," 3:24; "His disciples had gone to the city to buy food," 4:8; "He designated the city as a place of worship. 2:9; "John, indeed, had not yet been thrown into prison" 3:24; "His disciples, indeed, had gone into the city to buy food" 4:8; "Thus he pointed to Judas, the son of Simon the Iscariot" 6:71; etc.),
   • and even providing theological insights (e.g., clarifying references from a later perspective such as "But he spoke of the temple of his body" in 2:21-22; "He referred to the Spirit whom those who would believe in him should receive" in 7:39, etc.),
   • or by protecting the divinity of Jesus ("he knew what he was going to do" in 6:6).
   Some of these cases may reflect a situation where a tradition first transmitted in one context (Palestinian or Jewish) is now proclaimed in another context (Diaspora or Gentile).

1. Prologue (1: 1-18)

   Serving as a preface to the Gospel, the Prologue is a hymn that summarizes John's vision of Christ. A divine being comes into the world and becomes flesh. Though rejected by his own, he enables all who accept him to become children of God, so that they share in the fullness of God, a gift reflecting God's enduring love that surpasses Moses' gift of the Law. The background to this poetic description of the descent of the Word into the world and the eventual return of the Son to the Father lies in the image of the personified Wisdom of the OT (especially Sirach 24 and Wisdom 9) who was in the beginning with God at the creation of the world and who came to dwell with human beings when the Law was revealed to Moses. In keeping with the tradition that John the Baptist's ministry is linked to the beginning of Jesus', the Prologue is interrupted twice, namely to mention John the Baptist before the light came into the world and to record John the Baptist's testimony to Jesus after the Word became flesh.

2. Part One: The Book of Signs (1: 19 - 12: 50)

   This part of the Gospel shows that Jesus brings different kinds of people to believe in him, while provoking hostility from many "Jews". At the end (12:39-40), the Gospel quotes Isaiah 6:10, that God has blinded their eyes and hardened their hearts so that they cannot see. Thus, this "Book" illustrates the theme of the Prologue: "He came to his own, but his own did not receive him."

   1. Initial days of the revelation of Jesus to his disciples under different titles (1: 19 - 2: 11)

      In a pattern of distinct days, John shows a progressive recognition of who Jesus is. On the first day, John the Baptist explains his own role, rejecting laudatory identifications and predicting the coming of one he is not worthy of. The next day, as befits "one sent from God," John the Baptist astutely recognizes that Jesus is the Lamb of God, that he has existed before, and that he is God's chosen one. The next day, Jesus is followed by Andrew and another disciple of John the Baptist (the one who, in the second part of the Gospel, will become the disciple Jesus loved?). Andrew greets Jesus as master and Messiah, and Simon (Andrew's brother) is brought to Jesus, who names him "Cephas" (i.e. rock = Peter). The next day he (Andrew, Peter or Jesus?) finds Philip, who in turn finds Nathanael, and Jesus is successively identified as the one described in the Mosaic law and the prophets, as the Son of God and the King of Israel. Yet Jesus promises that they will see far greater things and speaks of himself as the Son of Man upon whom the angels ascend and descend. The "greater things" seem to begin at Cana on the third day when Jesus changes water into wine and his disciples come to believe in him.

      Some Johannine theological overtones appear in this first subsection. A legal atmosphere colors the narrative; for example, John the Baptist is questioned by "the Jews"; he testifies and does not deny, an indication that part of the Johannine tradition was shaped in a judicial context, perhaps in a synagogue where Christians were questioned about their belief in Jesus. As for Christology, it can hardly be accidental that John places Jesus' confessions in these early days under many of the traditional headings we find scattered throughout the other gospels, most often later in the ministry. This subsection also depicts discipleship. Jesus asks an initial question in 1:38: "What do you seek?" followed in 1:39 by "Come and see." Yet it is only when they stay with him that the first disciples become believers. Then, in a consistent pattern, the first disciples go out to proclaim Jesus to others with a deepened Christological perception by this very action, as illustrated by the "superior" titles given to Jesus day after day.

   2. First to second Cana miracle; themes of replacement and of reactions to Jesus (chaps. 2-4)
      • (2:1-10) The first miracle at Cana. John calls it a sign and it consists of replacing the water prescribed for Jewish purifications (in stone jars holding over 120 gallons) with wine so good that the butler wonders why the best was saved for last. This represents the revelation and wisdom he brings from God (Prov 9:4-5; Sir 24:20), fulfilling OT promises of an abundance of wine in messianic days (Am 9:13-14; Gen 49:10-11). An intertwined motive involves Jesus' mother, whose family-like request on behalf of the newlyweds ("They have no wine") is rejected by Jesus on the grounds that his time has not yet come. However, the mother's persistence in honoring Jesus' conditions ("Do whatever he tells you") leads him to grant her initial request, as in the second sign of Cana, where the royal official's persistence is granted after a rebuff. Meanwhile, in a transitional verse (2:12), we learn that she and Jesus' "brothers" have followed him to Capernaum, without going any further, as Jesus continues on his way to Jerusalem.

      • (2:13-25) Jesus and the Temple. Whereas the parallel scene of the cleansing of the temple in the Synoptics takes place just before Jesus is put to death and serves to falsely accuse him at the trial before the Sanhedrin, in John the scene is placed at the beginning of Jesus' ministry: the statement about the sanctuary is on Jesus' lips (phrased, however, as "Destroy," not as "I will destroy"); and the replacement is not another sanctuary but the same one that will be raised. John intends to illustrate the total incompatibility between Jesus and his own who do not receive him. In John's interpretation, the shrine is also the body of Jesus, "destroyed" by "the Jews" but risen by Jesus. Thus, the Temple in Jerusalem, which was turned into a marketplace, was replaced by the body of Jesus as the true holy place. According to 2:23-25, many in Jerusalem believed in Jesus because of the signs he did, but he did not trust their faith because it stopped at the miraculous aspect of the sign and did not perceive what was meant. This transient observation introduces one of these potential believers to Jesus who appears in the next subsection.

      • (3, 1-21) Nicodemus. This is the first of the important Johannine dialogues. This Pharisee, a member of the Sanhedrin, comes to Jesus "by night" (i.e., because he does not yet belong to the light) and recognizes him as a "teacher from God." By this designation, Nicodemus means only "raised up by God", whereas Jesus really came from God. Nicodemus is thus a representative spokesman for an inadequate faith, as becomes evident when Jesus explains that only by being begotten from above can one enter the kingdom of God, that is, by being begotten of water and the Spirit. The Johannine Jesus speaks of the very life of God that is only acquired when one is begotten by God ("from above"), which happens when one is baptized in water and receives the Spirit of God. Nicodemus thinks of the natural birth of a Jewish mother as making one a member of the chosen people, a people whom the OT considers to be the child of God. The Johannine Jesus thus radically replaces what constitutes the children of God, challenging any privileged status derived from natural parentage. The typical Johannine irony appears when Nicodemus says, "We know" but cannot understand, while Jesus, speaking for those who believe, says, "We speak of what we know and testify of what we have seen." Jesus' certainty about the need to beget from above flows from his own coming from above. The dialogue now becomes a monologue, as Nicodemus fades into the darkness from which he came. In 3:15-21, Jesus proclaims for the first time the fundamental Johannine theology of the saving incarnation: He is the Son of God who has come into the world bringing the very life of God, so that whoever believes in him has eternal life and has already passed through the judgment.

      • (3:22-30) Last testimony of John the Baptist. The opposition to Jesus on the part of John the Baptist's disciples allows John the Baptist to clarify once again who he is not and the greatness of the one for whom he has prepared himself. The image is that of the bridegroom's best friend watching protectively over the house of the bride (Israel), waiting to hear the approach of the bridegroom (Jesus) who is coming to take her to his home.

      • (3:31 - 4:1-3) A speech. This speech seems to repeat things said earlier, supporting the thesis of those who claim that an editor completed the evangelist's work by adding other forms of material that was already there. However, the context suggests that John the Baptist is the speaker. Like Jesus, he was sent by God, so does he speak like Jesus? Second, 4:1-3 provides a geographical transition from Judea to Galilee.

      • (4:4-42) The encounter with the Samaritan woman. This is the first complete example of Johannine dramatic ability. It is about a character who is more than an individual and who has been developed to serve as a spokesperson for a particular type of faith encounter with Jesus. The performance focuses on how one comes to faith and the many obstacles that stand in one's way. The young woman, who has suffered the injustice of the Jews' treatment of Samaritan women, rejects Jesus' request to give her a drink. Jesus does not respond to her objection, but to what he can give her, i.e., living water, which she mistakes for running water, asking her contemptuously if he thinks himself greater than Jacob. By Johannine irony, Jesus is greater; but once again, Jesus refuses to be distracted and explains that he is talking about water that springs forth for eternal life, water that will definitely end thirst. With a masterful touch, John shows that she is attracted by the convenience of not having to go to the well. Then, in typical Johannine style, Jesus shifts the focus to her husband in order to progress in another way. Her answer is a half-truth and Jesus, who is omniscient, shows that he is fully aware of her five husbands and her life with a man who is not her husband. The very fact that the story continues shows that Jesus' effort to bring her to faith will not be blocked by the obstacle of a less than perfect life, even if she has to acknowledge it. Confronted with such surprising knowledge of her situation, the woman finally moves to a religious level, seeking to avoid further probing by bringing up a theological dispute between Jews and Samaritans about whether God should be worshipped in the Temple in Jerusalem or on Mount Gerizim in that same area. Once again, Jesus refuses to be diverted from his course; indeed, although salvation comes from the Jews, a time is coming and is already here when such a question is no longer relevant, for worship at the two sacred sites will be replaced by worship in Spirit and in truth. Nimbly, the woman once again seeks to avoid the personal question by changing her perspective and placing herself in the distant future, when the Messiah will come; but Jesus will not let her escape. His "I am" confronts her with a present-day demand for faith.

        John now adopts the double-stage technique in 4:27-39, reporting the reaction of the disciples who return to the forefront at the well, while the woman goes backstage to the village. Although the disciples were with Jesus, their misunderstanding of Jesus' food is just as gross as the woman's misunderstanding of the water. The woman's hesitation, "Could this be the Messiah?" means that she is looking for reinforcement, which is provided by the Samaritans of the village who come to believe when they meet Jesus. Their words to her, "Our faith no longer depends on your story, for we have heard it ourselves," reflect the Johannine theology that all must come into personal contact with Jesus. It is plausible that this account reflects the Johannine story in which the Samaritans entered the community alongside the Jews, but this is not clear. More obvious is the continuity of the theme of replacement (here the replacement of Temple worship) and the contrast between the more open faith of the Samaritans and the less adequate belief of those in Jerusalem and Nicodemus.

      • (4:43-54) The second sign at Cana. This story resembles the first Cana story in that the petitioner is rebuffed but persists and has his request granted. The story of the royal official's son is probably a third variant of the story of the centurion's servant which has two slightly different forms in Mt 8:5-13 and Lk 7:1-10. The variants are of a type that could occur in the oral tradition. In the sequence of Johannine themes, the transition 4:43-45 speaks of insufficient faith that does not honor a prophet in his own country. This is contrasted with the faith illustrated by the royal official who believes that what Jesus said will happen and returns home on the basis of that belief, eventually bringing his whole family into the faith. To Nicodemus, Jesus had spoken of a begetting/birth from above (which gives life); to the Samaritan woman, he had spoken of water springing up for eternal life; now he gives life to the royal official's son. This sets up a key phrase in the next subdivision, that the Son gives life to whomever he wants.

   3. Old Testament feasts and their replacement; themes of life and light (chaps. 5-10)

      This section begins with the theme of life and will continue with that of light, motifs anticipated in the Prologue. A more dominant motif, however, is the sequence of Jewish feasts that run through this subdivision (Sabbath, Passover, Tents, Dedication), and in each case something Jesus does or says plays on a significant aspect of the feast and replaces it to some extent.

      • (5:1-47) Healing of a paralytic and speech. On the Sabbath, Jesus heals and thus gives life, which leads to a hostile dialogue. The combination of a miracle and a speech/dialogue that brings out the sign value of the miracle is a Johannine technique. Here, on the occasion of an unnamed "feast of the Jews," which is also a Sabbath, Jesus heals a man who was waiting for his healing at the pool of Bethesda. His command to take the mat violates the Sabbath law (as would later be verified by the codified guidelines of the Mishna). The explanation Jesus gives to the "Jews" does not appeal to humanitarian motives, but to his supreme authority. The logic seems to be that although people should not work on the Sabbath, God continues to work on that day. God is the Father of Jesus, and the Father has given the Son power over life and death. "The Jews" grasp what is claimed; "they sought all the more to kill him because he not only violated the Sabbath but, worse, spoke of God as his own Father, thus making himself equal to God." Thus, more than in the other gospels, in John a deadly antipathy to Jesus appears from the beginning and consistently, and his claim to divinity is clearly stated. As many biblical scholars have pointed out, there are two levels here: memories of hostility to Jesus during his ministry superimposed on the later experiences of his disciples who were accused of ditheism by the Jewish authorities, i.e., of making Jesus a God and thus violating the fundamental principle of Israel: The Lord our God is one. The answer in 5:19-30 is subtle: the Son does nothing of himself, but the Father has given him all things. In 5:31-47, five arguments are put forward as testimonies, as if they were put forward in a synagogue debate:
        1. God (another) testified on behalf of Jesus,
        2. likewise John the Baptist testified,
        3. the works that Jesus does,
        4. the Scripture,
        5. Moses wrote about Jesus.

      • (6:1-71) Feeding of the crowd and speech. This takes place at Passover. While Mark and Matthew present two scenes of the feeding of the crowd, John presents only one, with some details sometimes close to the former, sometimes to the latter. The introduction of Philip and Andrew as characters who prepare for Jesus' response is typically Johannine; and John presents particular features that might reinforce the eucharistic symbolism of the multiplication. The combination of the wonderfully provided food and the walking on water echoes the miracles of Moses in the Exodus after the first Passover (manna, Red Sea), just as the murmuring of 6:41 corresponds to the similar action of Israel in the wilderness wanderings. This leads to a comparison between Jesus and Moses: Moses did not give the true bread from heaven because those who ate the manna died. Contrary to the synoptic account, the crowd reacts, but their understanding of things does not go beyond the miraculous, and they do not grasp that Jesus did not come simply to satisfy earthly hunger, but to give a bread that would feed people for eternal life.

        In the speech that follows, Jesus proclaims that he is the Bread of God, so that one must believe in the Son to have eternal life. Note first that the language, "Whoever comes to me shall never be hungry, and whoever believes in me shall never be thirsty" echoes the promise of divine Wisdom in Sir 24:21. Second, Jesus is food in another sense, for one must feed on his flesh and blood to have eternal life, language evocative of the Eucharist. Indeed, 6:51b, "The bread I will give is my own flesh for the life of the world," may well be the Johannine Eucharistic formula comparable to "This is my body which is (given) for you" of Lk 22:19; 1 Cor 11:24. Taken together, the two parts of the discourse in John 6 reveal that Jesus feeds his disciples both through his revelation and through his Eucharistic flesh and blood. In response, some of Jesus' followers murmur about this teaching as do "the Jews". At the level of Jesus' ministry, this backlash concerns his claims about the heavenly origins of the Son of Man; at the level of community life, it may reflect the rejection by other Christians of a high view of the eucharist.

      • (7:1-52) The Feast of Tents or Tabernacles. This eight-day pilgrimage feast in which the Jews went up to Jerusalem, in addition to celebrating the September/October harvest, was marked by prayers for rain. A daily procession from the Pool of Siloam brought water in libation to the Temple, where the women's court was lit by huge torches, hence the themes of water and light. Refusing a request from his "brothers" that smacks of disbelief, Jesus goes up to Jerusalem on his own initiative and in secret. Thoughts about him are divisive, reflecting John's theme that Jesus leads people to judge themselves. Jesus' dialogue with "the Jews" recalls the earlier hostility related to the violation of the Mosaic law and ends with a warning that he will not stay long and go to the one who sent him. The replacement of the water theme of the feast is highlighted on the last day of the Tents, when Jesus announces that from within him (the most likely reading) will flow rivers of living water, i.e. the Spirit that will be received when he is glorified. The division over Jesus, which leads to a failed arrest attempt, causes Nicodemus to return to the scene, to defend Jesus but not to profess that he is a believer.

      • (8:12-59) Jesus light of the world. The legal atmosphere of defensive testimony against Jewish accusations returns, and the situation becomes very hostile, e.g., suggestions of illegitimacy, accusations that the devil is the father of the adversaries. The story ends with one of the most impressive statements attributed to Jesus in the NT, "Even before Abraham existed, I am", which leads to an attempt to stone Jesus (implicitly for blasphemy).

      • (9:1-41) The blind man born. This scene is the masterpiece of Johannine dramatic narrative, so carefully crafted that not a single word is wasted. The motif of the "light of the world" and the reference to the pool of Siloam establish a loose relationship with the Feast of Tabernacles that obviously kept Jesus in Jerusalem. The born blind man represents a particular type of faith encounter with Jesus. The Samaritan woman is an example of possible obstacles in the first encounter with Jesus. The blind man, who washed in the waters of Siloam (the name is interpreted as "the sent one", a Johannine designation of Jesus), is an example of the one who is enlightened in the first encounter, but who will not really grasp the identity of Jesus until later, after he has suffered hardships and been driven out of the synagogue. This could be seen as a message to Johannine Christians who have had a similar experience, encouraging them to recognize that through their trials they have had the opportunity to come to a much deeper faith than in their first encounter with Christ. The intensification of the series of questions to which the blind-born man is subjected, the increasing hostility and blindness of the interrogators who expel him from the synagogue, the blind man's increasing perception of Jesus during the interrogations, and the apprehensive attempt of the parents to avoid taking a stand for or against Jesus - all are masterfully developed into a drama that could easily be played out on a stage to illustrate how, with the coming of Jesus, those who claimed to see became blind and those who were blind received their sight.

      • (10, 1-21) The Good Shepherd. This speech is addressed to the Pharisees whom Jesus has just accused of being blind. In John, there is a mixture of metaphors offering different ways of looking at the same reality: Jesus is the gate through which the shepherd goes to the sheep, and through which the sheep return to the fold and go to feed; and Jesus is the model shepherd who knows his sheep by name and is willing to give his life for them. At the level of Jesus' ministry, this is directed at the Pharisees who are the imagined audience; at the level of Johannine church life, it may be a criticism of other Christians who have introduced human shepherds (pastors) who might seem to rival the claims of Christ. The famous passage in 10:16 where Jesus, referring to other sheep who are not of this fold, expresses his goal of one flock of sheep, one shepherd, suggests that, when the Gospel was written, division among Jesus' followers was a problem.

      • (10:22-42) The Jewish feast of the Dedication (Hanukkah) celebrates the dedication of the altar and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Maccabees (164 BC) after several years of desecration under Syrian rulers. This festive theme is replaced when, in the Temple portico, Jesus affirms that he is the one whom the Father has consecrated and sent into the world. The questions raised against Jesus, whether he is the Messiah and whether he blasphemes because he said he was the Son of God, resemble the substance of the Sanhedrin's investigation recounted by the Synoptic Gospels just before Jesus' death. In the face of attempts to stone him and arrest him, Jesus defiantly proclaims, "The Father is in me, and I am in the Father." By way of inclusion, the evangelist now has Jesus cross the Jordan River again, where the story began at the very beginning, and there the testimony of John the Baptist still resonates (10:40-42).

   4. The raising of Lazarus and its aftermath (chaps. 11-12)
      • (11:1-44) Jesus gives life to Lazarus, just as he gave light to the blind man and thus performs the greatest of his signs; yet, paradoxically, the gift of life leads the Sanhedrin to decide that Jesus must die, a decision that will result in his glorious return to the Father. In the story of the blind man, a dialogue explaining the value of the sign follows the healing; but in the resurrection of Lazarus, the dialogue explaining the sign precedes; having a conversation after Lazarus has risen from the grave would have destroyed the climax. In the dialogue, Martha already believes that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that her brother will rise on the last day; but Jesus leads her to an even deeper faith. Jesus is not only the resurrection but also the life, so that whoever believes in him will never die. The miraculous return of Lazarus to life answers Martha's longing, but it is still only a sign, for Lazarus will die again; that is why he comes out of the tomb still tied to his burial robe. Jesus comes to give an eternal life impervious to death, as he will symbolize when he leaves the tomb, leaving behind his burial clothes.

      • (11:45-57) A session of the Sanhedrin is provoked by the size of the audience gained by Jesus and the fear that the Romans will intervene to the detriment of the nation and the Temple ("holy place"). Caiaphas, the high priest in that fateful year, is able to pronounce a prophecy, although he does not recognize it. He means that Jesus must die in place of the nation, but John sees in it the meaning that Jesus will die on behalf of the nation and in fact "to gather the scattered children of God and make them one." Jesus' fate is sealed by the Sanhedrin who plan to kill him, and the intervening verses (11:54-57) prepare for the arrest at Passover.

      • (12:1-19) In Bethany and Jerusalem. Six days before Passover, Mary, the sister of Lazarus, anoints the feet of Jesus (John 12:1-11). This action closely parallels Mk 14:3-9 and Mt 26:6-13, where in Bethany, two days before Passover, an unidentified woman pours perfume on Jesus' head. Both forms of the story have as their motif the preparation of Jesus for burial. The scene of Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem the next day has close parallels with the entry into Jerusalem in Mk 11:1-10; Mt 21:1-9; Lk 19:28-40, which took place much earlier. Only John mentions palm branches, and Jesus' choice of a donkey seems almost to be a corrective reaction, referring to the king promised in Zechariah, who is to bring peace and salvation (Zech 9:9-10).

      • (12:20-50) The end of the public ministry is signaled by the arrival of the Gentiles, leading Jesus to exclaim, "The hour has come," and to speak of a grain of wheat dying to bear much fruit. The atmosphere is similar to that of Jesus' prayer in Gethsemane, the night before his death, in Mk 14:34-36. In both scenes, Jesus' soul is troubled/sad. In Mark, he prays to the Father that the hour will pass away from him; in John, he refuses to pray to the Father that he will be saved from the hour, since that is what he came for. In Mark, Jesus prays that God's will be done; in John, he prays that God's name be glorified - variations on the requests of the "Our Father" and thus reflections of Jesus' style of prayer. The heavenly voice that answers is taken to be an angel; this resembles the appearance of an angel as an answer in Lk 22:43 and Jesus' assertion that, if he had wished, the Father would have sent more than twelve legions of angels in Mt 26:53 - interesting examples of variations within different preservations of the Jesus tradition. The inability of the crowds to accept the proclamation of the Son of Man becomes, in Jn 12:37-41, the fulfillment of Isaiah's prediction that they will never believe. Certainly, some members of the Sanhedrin believe in Jesus; but, fearing the Pharisees and unwilling to confess him, they do not proclaim the glory of God. Once again, we suspect that the evangelist is also thinking of those in the synagogues of his time who do not have the courage to confess Christ.

3. Part Two: The Book of Glory (13: 1 - 20: 31)

   The theme of these eight chapters is stated in 13:1 with the announcement that Jesus knew that the time had come for him to pass from this world to the Father, showing his love for his own who were in this world to the end. In the five chapters that describe the Last Supper, only his "own" are present to hear Jesus speak about his plans for them, and then in the three chapters that describe the passion, death and resurrection, Jesus is glorified and ascends to his Father who now becomes their Father.

   1. The Last Supper and Jesus' Last Discourse (chaps. 13-17)

      In all the Gospels, Jesus speaks during this meal, the night before his death, but in John, the speech lasts much longer.

      1. The Last Supper (chap. 13)

         John's account has parallels with the synoptic material where, at the table, Jesus speaks of Judas and (there or after) warns that Simon Peter will deny him three times. However, instead of Jesus' words about bread and wine, John presents the washing of the disciples' feet, a loving act of abasement that serves as an example to his disciples. The presence of the "disciple whom Jesus loved" is also unique to John. Serving as an intermediary for Simon Peter, who is placed at a distance from Jesus, this beloved disciple leans on Jesus' chest to ask the identity of the one who will deliver Jesus. Mentioned only in the Book of Glory, the Beloved Disciple is characterized by his closeness to Jesus and his contrast to Peter.

         After Judas goes out into the night (a symbol of satanic darkness), John provides a brief introduction to the last discourse, where Jesus speaks once again of his coming glorification and gives his new commandment about loving one another. This commandment is "new" not because love was lacking in the OT, but because there are now two typically Christian modifications: love is to be reinforced and modeled on the way Jesus demonstrated his love for his disciples by dying and rising for them, and it is a love that is to be extended to other Christian disciples.

      2. Jesus' Last Discourse (chaps. 14-17)

         This discourse presents as a final message various elements that are found in the Synoptics not only at the Last Supper, but also scattered throughout the public ministry. Placed between heaven and earth and already in the ascension to glory, the Johannine Jesus speaks both as if he were still in the world and as if he were no longer in it. This atemporal, non-spatial character gives the Discourse a permanent value as a message from Jesus to those who have always believed. In form and content, it resembles a "testament" or farewell address in which the speaker (sometimes a father to his children) announces his imminent departure, often producing sadness; he recalls his past life, words and deeds, urging his recipients to imitate and even surpass them, to keep the commandments and maintain unity among themselves. He may wish the recipients peace and joy, pray for them, predict that they will be persecuted, and choose a successor (Paraclete passages).

         Division One (chap. 14)

         Jesus insists on his departure and comforts his disciples by promising to return to take them to him so that they may be with him. Throughout the discourse, the flow of words is fueled by those present asking questions reflecting their lack of understanding, and so Thomas' question leads to one of the most famous proclamations of the Gospel: "I am the way, the truth and the life", and Philip's question leads to Jesus' affirmation: "He who has seen me has seen the Father.... I am in the Father and the Father is in me." This mutual divine indwelling leads in turn to the theme of how the Spirit, Jesus and the Father will all dwell in the Christian.

         The designation of the Spirit as the Paraclete is particularly interesting. Unlike the neutral word (pneuma) which designates the Spirit, paraklētos, literally "the one who is called near", is a personal designation illustrating a Spirit called after Jesus' departure as "advocate" to defend Christians and "comforter" to comfort them. Just as Jesus was the means of knowing the Father from heaven, so the Paraclete is the means of knowing Jesus who has gone to heaven. This Paraclete dwells in all those who love Jesus and keep his commandments and is with them always. Two features are characteristic: he is in a hostile relationship with the world that cannot see or recognize him and he serves as a teacher by explaining the implications of what Jesus said.

         This last motif reappears in the second passage of the Paraclete, then Jesus gives his gift of peace, accompanied by a warning about the coming of the Prince of this world. Jesus' final words in this chapter, "Get up! Let us leave here and be on our way" (14:31c), seem to signal the end of the last discourse and would lead perfectly to 18:1: "After this discourse, Jesus went away with his disciples to the other side of the Kidron Valley."

         Division Two (chaps. 15-16)

         The fact that three chapters of the Discourse follow this call for Jesus to "go" (14:31c) is very surprising and has led many biblical scholars to assume an insertion added later to the evangelist's original work by an editor. The fact that 16:4b-33 seems to deal with many of the themes of the first division, while assuming that the audience knows nothing about these themes, has suggested that this insertion consisted of a final alternative discourse that the editor did not want to see disappear.

         • (15:1-17) The vine and the branches. In the OT, Israel is often depicted as God's vineyard or vineyard of choice, tended with consummate care, but yielding only bitter fruit. We have seen Jesus replace Jewish institutions and festivals; he now presents himself as the vine of the new Israel. As branches united with him, Christians will bear fruit pleasing to God, the vinedresser. Although the vine does not wither and fall, the branches do fall and must be removed and burned. As part of his comments on the image, Jesus again proclaims his commandment of mutual love. This love includes the willingness to lay down one's life for others.

         • (15:18 - 16:4a) The hatred of the world and the witness of the Paraclete. Jesus' insistence on the need for love among his disciples is linked to his perception of the world's hatred of him and his chosen ones in the world. If at the beginning of the gospel we were told that God loved the world, "the world" is now synonymous with those who rejected the Son whom God sent to save him. The fact that Jesus came and spoke makes this rejection sinful. The Paraclete will come and carry on the testimony in Jesus' name, and those who have been with Jesus from the beginning must bear witness, knowing that they will be persecuted and put to death. This section of the Johannine Last Discourse resembles part of Jesus' last discourse before the Last Supper in Mk 13:9-13.

         • (16:4b-33) The Spirit, joy, victory over the world. These themes resemble those of the first division. Jesus reiterates what he said at the beginning of the Discourse by announcing his departure, talking about where he is going, and acknowledging that his disciples' hearts are troubled. Once again, there are two passages about the Paraclete: the first corresponds to that of 14:15-17 on the theme of his conflict with the world; the second, corresponds to that of 14:25-26 on the theme of his new teaching of what Jesus has taught. After saying that the Father gives or sends the Paraclete, now it is said that Jesus sends him - an illustration of Jesus' claim that he and the Father are one.
           The theme of Jesus' departure is reintroduced, but Jesus' painful death and subsequent return are compared to the pains of childbirth and the subsequent birth. Similarly, the question of asking and receiving reappears, as do the themes of the Father's love and the promise of peace; but the contrast between figures of speech and plain speaking and the prediction of the dispersion of the disciples are new. Although in closing the first division of the discourse Jesus said that the prince of this world had no power over him, the simple "I have overcome the world" is a more resounding conclusion to this division.

         Division Three (chap. 17)

         This sublime conclusion to the last discourse is often evaluated as the "priestly" prayer of Jesus, the one who consecrated himself for those he would send into the world.

         • (17:1-8) In the first section, Jesus prays for glorification (i.e., the glory he had before creation) on the grounds that he has accomplished all that the Father has given him to do and revealed the name of God. This is not a selfish prayer, since the purpose of glorification is that the Son may properly glorify the Father.

         • (17:9-19) In the second part, Jesus prays for those whom the Father has given him, that they may be protected by the name given to Jesus. He refuses to pray for the world (which, by rejecting Jesus, has become the kingdom of evil), because his followers do not belong to the world. Unlike a Gnostic savior, Jesus does not ask that his followers be removed from the world, but only that they be protected from the Evil One. Praying that they be consecrated as he consecrates himself, Jesus sends them out into the world to witness to the truth.

         • (17:20-26) In the third section, Jesus prays for those who believe in him through the word of the disciples - a prayer that they may be one as the Father and Jesus are one. (As in 10:16, we get the impression that already in John's day, Christians are not united.) A completed unity among the believers will be convincing for the world. Magnificent statements about these believers are addressed to the Father: "I have given them the glory you gave me"; "You have loved them as you have loved me"; "They are your gift to me"; and finally "To them I have made your name known, and I will continue to make it known, so that the love you had for me may be in them and I in them." Strengthened by this assurance, the Johannine Jesus continues his ascent on the cross in his return to the Father.

   2. Jesus' passion and death (chaps. 18-19)

      The Johannine narrative is very similar to that of the Synoptics with its presentation in four acts: the arrest, the Jewish trial, the Roman trial and the crucifixion/burial.

      • (18, 1- 12) Arrest in the garden across the Kidron. In the Synoptics, the place of arrest is called Gethsemane and/or the Mount of Olives. John speaks of Jesus crossing the Kidron, which flows in winter, to a garden. The prayer to the Father for deliverance from the hour, found in Gethsemane in Mark, took place earlier in John (12:27-28), so the whole Johannine scene is centered on the arrest, with Jesus eager to drink the cup the Father has given him. There are particular Johannine characteristics: Jesus, knowing that Judas is coming, goes to meet him; and when he identifies himself with the words "I am", the group that has come to arrest him, composed of the Jewish police and a cohort of Roman soldiers, falls to the ground before him. This corresponds to the representation of Jesus as master of himself that governs the passion in John.

      • (18:13-27) Interrogation by Hanne; denials by Peter. In all the Gospels, the arresting party delivers Jesus to the court or palace of the Jewish high priest for questioning by that authority - an interrogation that is accompanied by the account of the abuse and mockery of Jesus and the three denials of Peter. In John alone, there is no session of the Sanhedrin to decide on Jesus' death (that took place earlier in 11:45-53); and although Caiaphas is mentioned, it is Hanne who leads the investigation. Peter's denials are introduced by the presence of another disciple known to the high priest - probably the beloved disciple who appears only in John.

      • (18:28 - 19:16) The trial before Pilate. This Roman trial is much more developed in John than in the Synoptics. The setting is neat, with the "Jews" outside the Praetorium and Jesus inside. Seven episodes describe how Pilate shuttled back and forth to try to reconcile the two inflexible antagonists. Only John clearly explains why Jesus was brought to Pilate (18:31: the Jews had no right to put anyone to death) and why Pilate passed a death sentence when he knew that Jesus did not deserve such punishment (19:12: he would be denounced to the emperor for not being diligent in punishing a so-called king). Jesus, who hardly addresses Pilate in the other gospels, explains that his kingship is not political; Besides, "the Jews" admit that the real problem is not the accusation of being "the king of the Jews", but the fact that Jesus claimed to be the son of God. Pilate is challenged by Jesus to know whether he belongs to the truth, and the scene thus becomes the trial of Pontius Pilate before Jesus, over whom Pilate has no real power. The scourging by the Roman soldiers (at the end after the condemnation in Mark/Matthew) is moved to the center of the trial so that Pilate can present Jesus, abused and mocked, to the "Jews" in the famous scene of the Ecce homo, with the vain hope that they would give up their demand for a death sentence. Although Pilate gives in, "the Jews" are forced to renounce their messianic expectations by saying, "We have no king but the emperor." With Pilate, John has put on stage his thesis that those who want to avoid the judgment provoked by Jesus do not themselves belong to the truth.

      • (19:17-42) Crucifixion, death and burial. John accentuates the drama of the scene by constructing major theological episodes from details of tradition. The accusation of "king of the Jews" becomes the occasion for Pilate to finally acknowledge the truth about Jesus, proclaiming it in the style of an imperial inscription in three languages. The sharing of Jesus' clothes becomes the detailed fulfillment of Scripture, illustrating how Jesus remained in control. The Galilean women in John are placed near the cross, not at a distance, while Jesus is still alive. There are two other figures whose presence John alone notes and whose names he never gives us: Jesus' mother and the disciple he loved. Jesus brings them into a mother-son relationship and thus forms a community of disciples who are mother and brother to him - the community that has preserved this Gospel. This is how the Johannine Jesus can speak his last word from the cross: "All is accomplished" and hand over his Spirit to the community of believers he leaves behind. The scene of the piercing of the side of the dead Jesus is particularly Johannine, for it fulfills both 7:37-39, according to which from within Jesus would flow living water, symbol of the Spirit, and 1:29, according to which he was the Lamb of God (since the bones of the paschal lamb were not to be broken). The special case of John is that of Nicodemus, who had not openly admitted that he believed in Jesus. He now reappears and (along with the traditional Joseph of Arimathea) publicly gives Jesus an honorable burial, thus fulfilling Jesus' promise to draw all men to himself after his elevation.

   3. The resurrection (20:1-29)

      Like Luke, John places all the appearances of the risen Lord in Jerusalem, without any indication of the appearances that will take place in Galilee. In John, four different types of faith response to the risen Jesus are staged, two in scenes that take place at the empty tomb, two in a room where the disciples are gathered. The second and fourth focus on individual reactions (Mary Magdalene, Thomas) a reflection of John's love for the personal encounter with Jesus.

      • (20:1-18) At the tomb: Simon Peter and the beloved disciple. The first scene involves Simon Peter and the beloved disciple running to the tomb. Both enter and see the burial wrappings and the head cloth, but only the beloved disciple comes to faith. The fourth evangelist does not dispute the tradition that Peter was the first of the Twelve to see the risen Lord; but in his constant desire to exalt the Beloved Disciple, John makes sure that this disciple comes to faith even before the risen Lord appears or the prophetic Scriptures are recalled. Thus, the disciple becomes the first full-fledged believer.

      • (20:11-18) At the tomb: Mary Magdalene. In the second scene, Mary Magdalene returns to the tomb where two angels are now present. Neither their speaking to her nor the sudden appearance of Jesus, whom she mistakenly identifies as a gardener, brings her to faith. This is done when Jesus calls her by name - an illustration of the theme of the Good Shepherd in 10:3-4: He calls his own by name, and they know his voice. Mary is sent to announce all this to the disciples, who are now called Jesus' brothers because, following the resurrection/ascension, Jesus' Father becomes their Father, and they are his children. In a typically Johannine perspective, these two scenes at the tomb relate faith in the resurrection to intimacy with Jesus.

      • (20:19-25) In a room: meeting the disciples. The first scene takes place on the night of Easter Sunday, in a place whose doors are locked for fear of the "Jews." It involves members of the Twelve and culminates in the appearance of Jesus. After offering peace, echoing 14:27 and 16:33, the Johannine Jesus gives the disciples a mission that extends his own. In a symbolic action that evokes the creative breath of God that gave life to the first human being and the requirement to be begotten of water and Spirit, Jesus breathes on them and gives them a Holy Spirit that has power over sin, thus extending his own power over sin.

      • (20, 26-29) In a room: meeting with Thomas. The second scene is located in the same place a week later, in the presence of Thomas. Although the evidence offered to Thomas, namely examining Jesus' hands with his fingers and putting his hand in Jesus' side, presents a tangible bodily image of the risen Jesus, it should be noted that Thomas is not said to have touched Jesus. This gesture would probably have meant that Thomas' unbelief remained. Instead, his willingness to believe without touching Jesus is genuine faith, with the ironic result that the one who embodied unbelief now pronounces the highest Christological confession in the Gospels: "My Lord and my God" - an inclusion with the "The Word was God" of the Prologue. In response, Jesus blesses all future generations who will believe in him without having seen him, showing that he is aware of the Gospel audience for whom John has written throughout the text.

   4. Gospel Conclusion (20:30-31)

      While Luke presented his intention for writing his Gospel at the very beginning, John presents it to us at the end: to lead people to believe in Jesus as the Messiah, the Son of God, and through this faith to possess eternal life in his name. The explicitness of this statement is also a warning against a literal interpretation of John, as if the main purpose was to report eyewitness accounts.

4. Epilogue (21: 1-25)

   Although the Gospel ends at the end of chapter 20, another chapter of resurrection appearances (this time in Galilee) follows with a different conclusion. This chapter contains two scenes, one concerning fishing, the other preserving the words of the risen Jesus to Simon Peter and the beloved disciple. The connection between the two scenes and their internal harmony are debatable, but the themes are theologically related.

   • (21:1-14) The first scene, in which the risen Jesus is not recognized by the disciples (who are supposed to have seen him twice in chapter 20), involves a miraculous catch of fish similar to the one that occurred during the ministry in Luke 5:4-11. As Simon Peter brings the 153 fish to shore and the net is not torn, the catch becomes a symbol of missionary success in bringing people into the one community of Christ. Typically Johannine is the greater insight of the beloved disciple who is the first of the disciples to recognize the risen Lord. The unity of the scene is jeopardized by the fact that Jesus suddenly has fish on the shore before the catch is brought ashore. The meal of bread and fish he offers could be the Johannine form of the tradition that the risen Lord appeared at meals, often with Eucharistic overtones.

   • (21:15-23) The second scene abruptly changes symbolism when, leaving aside Peter's catch of fish, Jesus speaks to him of sheep. This is probably a second step in the evolution of Peter's image: known as a missionary (fisherman) apostle, Peter has now become a model of pastoral care. This development may have involved a late Johannine concession to the structure of the church, for in chap. 10 Jesus had been presented as the sole shepherd. But the qualifications remain true to Johannine idealism: Peter's role as shepherd flows from his love for Jesus; the flock always belongs to Jesus ("my sheep"); and Peter must be willing to lay down his life for the sheep. The unity of the scene is somewhat challenged by the sudden appearance of the beloved disciple, but the contrast between him and Peter is typically Johannine. The tradition that Peter is the symbol of apostolic authority is not challenged, but the Beloved Disciple has a position that Peter does not - the Disciple can last until Jesus returns. The concern about the exact implication of this statement (21:23: "did not say he should not die"), which has circulated as a Johannine tradition, suggests that the Disciple is now dead.

   • (21:24-25) The conclusion identifies the Beloved Disciple as the witness who stands behind the gospel narrative and certifies the truth of his testimony. It also reminds us that the whole Jesus cannot be captured in the pages of any book, even a book like the Fourth Gospel.

From the second to the eighteenth century, this question was answered in the affirmative, on the assumption that John, one of Jesus' twelve apostles, not only provided the memory of what had happened, but also wrote it down. John's Gospel was thus a more reliable guide than Mark or Luke, neither of which was written by an eyewitness. The differences between John and the Synoptics have been explained by assuming that the apostle, in his old age, had read the other gospels and decided to supplement them with his own more meditative memories.

In the last two centuries, however, a more critical mind has recognized that there is not the slightest sign in John that its author intended to add anything, nor has he provided a key to understanding how his material might fit in with the material in the Synoptics to which he makes no reference. As a result, the majority of scholars moved toward the position that John was not written by an eyewitness. The content of John was now considered to have no historical value (unlike the content of the synoptic gospels). Within this approach, it was initially assumed that, in order to obtain information about Jesus, the author of John was entirely dependent on the Synoptics, from which he imaginatively reworked the material into fictional accounts. However, a number of studies from different perspectives began to emerge in favor of the view that John was written independently of the Synoptics. The theory then was brought forward that the fourth evangelist drew not from the Synoptics but from non-historical sources.

In the mid-20th century, the pendulum began to swing back. Biblical scholars argued that at certain points in the words and deeds of Jesus in John, there is a tradition that has every right to be considered as old as the traditions of the Synoptics. The theory has gained support that John was a gospel like the others, which underwent three stages of development, just like them:

1. In the beginning, there were memories of what Jesus did and said, but not the same memories as those preserved in the Synoptics; perhaps the difference stemmed from the fact that, unlike the pre-Synoptic tradition, John's memories were not of standardized apostolic origin

2. Secondly, these memories were influenced by the life experience of the Johannine community that preserved them and the Johannine preachers who expounded them

3. Finally, an evangelist, who was likely one of the preachers with his own dramatic and creative abilities, transformed the second stage tradition into a written Gospel.

The Synoptics and John would thus constitute independent witnesses to Jesus, witnesses in which the ancient tradition was preserved and also theologically reflected upon as the message about Jesus was adapted to generations of believers. This perception is in the majority among today's biblical scholars, even if it is not unanimous.

1. The differences
   • a Jesus conscious of having pre-existed with God before coming into the world
   • a public ministry that takes place largely in Jerusalem rather than in Galilee
   • the significant absence of the Kingdom of God motif
   • long speeches and dialogues rather than parables
   • no evil possessions
   • a very limited number of miracles (seven?), some of which are unique (the turning of water into wine at Cana, the healing of a blind man and the resurrection of Lazarus).

2. The similarities
   • the ministry of John the Baptist
   • the feeding of the crowd
   • the anointing of Jesus by a woman
   • the characters of Martha and Mary
   • the absence of a night trial before Caiaphas
   • Peter's denials
   • the three "not guilty" statements at the trial before Pilate
   • the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus in Jerusalem to his male disciples

3. Proposed explanations

   At one end of the spectrum, some postulate that John knew Mark or even the three synoptics. At the other end of the spectrum, the fourth evangelist is thought not to have known any of the synoptic gospels, and occasional similarities between John and the others are explained by the fact that the synoptic and Johannine traditions independently reproduce, with variations, the same acts or words. Between the two extremes, a middle position adhered to by a majority of biblical scholars holds that Mark and John shared common pre-evangelical traditions, oral or written; and that, although the fourth evangelist did not see the final form of Luke, he was familiar with the traditions later incorporated in Luke. Some who distinguish in John between an evangelist and a final editor posit that only the latter knew one or more of the synoptic gospels.

1. First, there is no manuscript evidence to support such rearrangements
2. Second, the order that emerges from rearrangements always presents problems
3. Third, these rearrangements are based on assumptions about what should have interested the evangelist.

Yet there are indeed some problematic transitions. The most troublesome is the relatively clear ending of the Gospel at 20:30-31, where the author acknowledges that there were other elements he could have included but did not choose to do so. The presence of another chapter (21) and another ending (21:24-25) raises the possibility that, after an earlier form of the Gospel (but before any preserved form of the Gospel circulated), someone made additions. It is likely that this someone was not the person who had composed the earlier form and now had ideas after the fact, for this person should have felt free to insert the material of chapter 21 before the ending he had composed earlier in 20:30-31. Therefore, the present Gospel is thought to involve the work of two hands, an evangelist who composed the body of the Gospel and an editor who made later additions.

It can be assumed that whoever took the trouble to add to the evangelist's work first approved it in substance and must have belonged to the same community of thought. Indeed, the style of the proposed additions shows a respect for what was already written and a desire not to alter the established pattern, for example by adding a chapter on the resurrection appearances (chap. 21) after the existing end of 20:30-31 rather than breaking the careful arrangement of the appearances in chap. 20. There are several types of material that could be inserted.

1. Material Omitted. There are several indications (20, 31; 21, 25) of a larger body of tradition that was not included. It may be that the evangelist was unaware of it or was unable to achieve his purpose, e.g., the appearances in Galilee.

2. Duplicate material. In the final form of John, there seem to be slightly different collections of the same words of Jesus. For example, 3:31-36 (which awkwardly lacks a clear indication of the speaker) seems to repeat things said in 3:7,11-13,15-18. Similarly, parts of 16:4b-33 (spoken at the Last Supper, well after the indication in 14:31 that Jesus was leaving) closely repeat themes already stated in chap. 14; and 6:51b-58 repeats words from 6:35-5la.

Why would the editor add such material to the evangelist's work? Sometimes the added material is not significantly different in tone or emphasis and thus may have been included simply because it was part of the tradition and the editor did not want to lose it. At other times, the alleged additions reflect a different theological emphasis, which is best explained if the thinking of the community has varied over time. For example, 6:51b-58 emphasizes the eucharistic aspect of the Bread of Life, complementing the emphasis on bread as divine revelation or teaching in 6:35-51a. It is plausible that the dialogue of 21:15-17, which entrusts Simon Peter with the responsibility of shepherding, was included because it justified the development of human pastoral authority in a community that had hitherto regarded Jesus as the only shepherd, a development, some would argue, necessitated by the kind of schismatic division visible in 1 John. In this case, however, it should not be concluded that, if the editor's addition was motivated by circumstances of ongoing community history, the added material was necessarily late. The statements about the manner of Peter's martyrdom (21:18) and about the possibility that the Beloved Disciple would not die (21:23) are so vague that they certainly preceded the respective deaths. In some cases, the editor would have revived and incorporated an ancient tradition.

John 21:20.24 states that this anonymous beloved disciple testifies and "wrote these things." Irenaeus (ca. 180) identified the disciple as John (one of the Twelve) who lived in Ephesus until the time of Trajan (ca. 98). (As a child, Irenaeus had known Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, who is supposed to have known John.) This identification of the beloved disciple and evangelist as John (son of Zebedee), with the minor variation that he had attendants, has subsequently been accepted by the Church. Nevertheless, it is now recognized that such late second-century assumptions about characters who had lived a century earlier were often simplified; and that the authorial tradition was sometimes more concerned with the authority behind a biblical writing than with the physical author. As with the other gospels, most scholars doubt that this gospel was written by an eyewitness to Jesus' public ministry.

Who was the beloved disciple? There are three approaches.

1. First, some propose a well-known NT character. In addition to the traditional candidate (John, son of Zebedee), other proposals include Lazarus, John Mark and Thomas. While there may be a passage to support each identification, if the long tradition behind John is rejected, one is left guessing.

2. Second, some scholars have evaluated the Beloved Disciple as a pure symbol, created to model the perfect disciple. The fact that he is never given a name and appears alongside Peter in known scenes in the synoptic gospels where no such figure is mentioned has been invoked as evidence of non-historicity. However, another unnamed Johannine figure, who has a symbolic role and appears where she is absent in the Synoptics, namely the mother of Jesus, was certainly a historical figure. The presence of the beloved disciple at the foot of the cross, when the Twelve had fled, can only indicate that he was neither one of the Twelve nor an apostle - a term never used in John.

3. Third, other scholars (with whom I agree) theorize that the beloved disciple was a minor figure during Jesus' ministry, too unimportant to be mentioned in the more official Synoptic tradition. But since this character became important in the history of the Johannine community (perhaps the founder of the community), he became the ideal in its evangelical image, able to be contrasted with Peter as being closer to Jesus in love.

Was the beloved disciple the evangelist? This would be the impression given by John 21:20,24: "wrote these things". However, could it be a simplification of the editor who added chapter 21, hardening the more precise text of 19:35: "This testimony has been given by an eyewitness, and his testimony is true; he says what he knows to be true so that you too may have faith"? The passage could mean that the Beloved Disciple was not the evangelist but a witness to Jesus and therefore the source of the tradition that went into the fourth gospel. The evangelist who wrote this passage could have been a follower or disciple of the Beloved Disciple (whom he describes in the third person) and not himself an eyewitness to the ministry. Indeed, if one assumes both a different author for the Epistles and an editor for the Gospel, one might agree with those who posit a "Johannine School," that is, various disciples employing both a style and material that were traditional in that community - traditional because they were shaped in whole or in part by the Beloved Disciple.

The thesis would explain how some factors in John likely originate in Jesus' ministry, while other factors seem remote from that ministry:

1. Familiarity with Palestine

   John knows the location of Bethany, the garden across the Kidron that flows in winter, Solomon's porch in the Temple, the pools of Bethesda and Siloam, and the Lithostrotos. These sites are not mentioned in the other gospels, and sometimes external evidence supports Johannine accuracy. Other Johannine geographical references (Bethany beyond the Jordan in 1:28; Aenon near Salim in 3:23) have not yet been identified, but we should be cautious about resorting to purely symbolic interpretations of names;

2. Familiarity with Judaism

   Jewish feasts are mentioned in 5:9b; 6:4; 7:2; and 10:22; and the dialogue that follows shows knowledge of festive ceremonies and theology. Jewish customs are mentioned both explicitly (rules of purity in 2:6; 18:28; paschal lamb in 19:36) and implicitly (perhaps the composition of the high priest's robe in 19:23).

While the tradition that underlies John is firmly rooted in Judaism and Palestine, the presentation of this tradition has evolved considerably beyond the ministry of Jesus. The evangelist acknowledges this and defends this evolution as being guided by the Spirit-Paraclete. Those who confessed Jesus were driven out of the synagogue (9:22; 12:43); in fact, Christians were killed by pious synagogue followers (16:2). The expression "the Jews" reflects the attitudes developed in the history of the Johannine community. Unlike the Jesus of the synoptic gospels, the Johannine Jesus speaks explicitly of his divinity and pre-existence. He is hailed as God; and the fundamental dispute with "the Jews" is not only about his violation of the Sabbath rules, but about his having made himself equal to God. Traditional acts of Jesus, such as the healing of the infirm, the feeding of the crowd, and the opening of the eyes of the blind, became the subject of lengthy homilies involving theological reflection and debate according to the Jewish interpretation of Scripture. Contrary to the synoptic tradition, a large group of Samaritans believed in Jesus independently of the first disciples of Jesus.

It can be assumed that the tradition about Jesus in the Beloved Disciple was reflected upon over many years and developed in the light of the experiences of the Johannine community. At first, Jesus was seen as the last prophet and the Messiah of Jewish expectations (1:40-49). But later he was no longer simply the Son of Man who will come down from heaven at the end of time to judge the world, for he has already come down from heaven to share what he saw and heard when he was with God. The beloved disciple may have lived through the historical development of the community (and perhaps its expulsion from the synagogue), and so there may have been some symbiosis between him and the evangelist who wrote down a tradition that not only had its roots in his experience of Jesus, but also embodied decades of his ongoing reflection on that experience. The evangelist, who wove the theologically reflective tradition into a work of unique literary skill, would likely have been a disciple of the Beloved Disciple, about whom he writes in the third person. And the editor, if there was one, may have been another disciple.

John is often characterized as a Hellenistic gospel. His use of abstract ideas such as light and truth, his dualistic division of humanity into light and darkness, truth and falsehood, his concept of the Word, were all once widely regarded as the product of Greek philosophical thought, or of a combination of philosophy and religion (e.g., Hermetic literature), or of pagan mystery religions. An intermediate proposal was that the works of the Jewish philosopher Philo (before 50 CE) served as a channel for this thinking, especially with regard to "the Word". Another group of scholars has emphasized John's relationship to (nascent) Gnosticism. The Johannine image of a savior who came from a foreign world, who said that neither he nor those who accepted him were of this world, and who promised to return to take them to the heavenly abode could be integrated into the Gnostic image of the world. Until then, very few real Gnostic works were known, and our knowledge of 2nd century Gnosticism came from the reports of the Church Fathers. Thanks to them, we knew that the first commentator of John (Herakleon, disciple of Valentinus, mid-2nd century) was a Gnostic. Today, thanks to the discovery of Chenoboskion (Nag Hammadi) in Egypt in the late 1940s, we have Gnostic works in Coptic (some translated from the original Greek of the 2nd century CE). Although there are occasional stylistic parallels with John, on the whole these new documents are very different from a narrative Gospel like John; and most doubt that John borrowed from such a Gnostic. Yet another proposal would see parallels between John and the later Mandaean writings, with their syncretic mixture of Jewish traditions and Gnostic myths. In essence, all of these theories agree that the Johannine expressions of language and thought did not originate in the Palestinian world of Jesus of Nazareth.

• a world divided into light and darkness;
• people under the influence of an evil angelic principle;
• people who walk in the light or in the darkness;
• who walk in the truth;
• that test the spirits;
• the spirits of truth and perversity.

There is no evidence of John's direct familiarity with the Dead Sea Scrolls; rather, there is the possibility of indirect knowledge of a type of thought and expression common in Qumran, and perhaps in a wider region. There are interesting parallels between what we know of John the Baptist and the beliefs attested in the Scrolls (even if we do not have to think that John the Baptist was a member of the Qumran community), and in the NT John shows the greatest interest in the disciples of John the Baptist. By presenting the early followers of Jesus as disciples of John the Baptist and Jesus as performing at least a brief baptismal ministry, John may be historical. This leaves open the possibility that the followers of John the Baptist were a channel through which Qumran vocabulary and ideas entered the Johannine tradition. The fact that much of Qumran's vocabulary appears in the discourses of Jesus in John (to a much greater extent than in the Synoptics) should not lead us to the hasty conclusion that the raw materials of these discourses were the artificial compositions of the evangelist. If Qumran is an example of a wider range of thought, Jesus may well have known the vocabulary and ideas, for the Word made flesh spoke the language of his time. The Johannine tradition, which has a particular affection for this style of thought, may have been more careful to preserve it, as well as to remember and emphasize other ideas that did not seem important to the synoptic authors. The possibility of Palestinian and Jewish origins for the Johannine presentation of Jesus brings us to the question of the development of the Johannine community.

The analysis of the Gospel account and the three Johannine letters allows us to hypothesize that the history of the community went through four phases.

1. Pre-evangelical phase (until the 70s or 80s)

   In and around Palestine, Jews with relatively normal expectations, including followers of John the Baptist, accepted Jesus as the Davidic Messiah, the fulfillment of prophecy, confirmed by miracles. Among them, insignificantly at first, was a man who had known Jesus and become his disciple during the public ministry and who would become the Beloved Disciple. To these early disciples were added Jews of anti-Temple tendencies who converted in Samaria. They understood Jesus primarily in the Mosaic context (as opposed to the Davidic context): Jesus had been with God, whom he had seen and whose word he had brought into this world. The acceptance of this second group catalyzed the development of a high, pre-existence Christology (seen against the background of divine Wisdom) that led to debates with Jews who thought that Johannine Christians were abandoning Jewish monotheism by making Jesus a second God. Finally, the leaders of these Jews had the Johannine Christians expelled from the synagogues. The latter, alienated from their own, became very hostile to the "Jews", whom they considered to be children of the devil. They insisted on the fulfillment of eschatological promises in Jesus to make up for what they had lost in Judaism (hence the strong theme of replacement in the Gospel). At the same time, Johannine Christians despised believers in Jesus who did not also publicly break with the synagogue (example of the parents of the blind man in 9:21-2 3; also 12:42-43). The disciple mentioned earlier made this transition and helped others to make it, thus becoming the Beloved Disciple.

2. Phase of the writing of the basic Gospel (ca. 90)

   Since "the Jews" were considered blind and unbelieving, the coming of the Greeks was seen as God's plan of fulfillment. The community or part of it may have left Palestine for the diaspora to teach the Greeks, perhaps in the region of Ephesus, which would highlight the Hellenistic atmosphere of the Gospel and the need to explain Semitic names and titles (e.g., Rabbi, Messiah). This context highlighted the universalist possibilities of Johannine thought in an attempt to address a wider audience. Rejection and persecution, however, convinced Johannine Christians that the world (as "the Jews") was opposed to Jesus. They considered themselves not of this world, which was under the power of Satan, the Prince of this world. In their dealings with other Christians, they rejected some of them as having such an inadequate Christology that they were really unbelievers. Others, symbolized by Simon Peter, truly believed in Jesus but were not considered as insightful as the Johannine Christians symbolized by the Beloved Disciple. But there was hope that the divisions between them and the Johannine community could be mended to regain unity. Unfortunately, the gospel's one-sided emphasis on the divinity of Jesus (shaped by the struggles with the synagogue leaders) and the need for mutual love as the only commandment paved the way for some in the next generation who knew only this gospel to develop a radical and exaggerated view of Jesus' life.

3. Writing phase of the first two Johannine epistles (around the year 100)

   The community experiences a schism and splits in two:

   1. Some adhered to the view represented by the author of the first two letters (as distinct from the evangelist). This author complemented the Gospel by emphasizing the humanity of Jesus (come in the flesh) and ethical behavior (keeping the commandments)

   2. Many seceded and were considered antichrists and children of the devil because they had so exaggerated the divinity of Jesus that they saw no importance in his human career or in their own behavior (beyond simply believing in Jesus).

   Unfortunately, there was no sufficiently authoritative structure in the Johannine community to allow the author to discipline the secessionists who were actively seeking new adherents; it could only exhort those who were perplexed about the truth to test their minds.

4. Writing phase of the 3rd Johannine letter and the addition of chapter 21 (year 100-110)

   The disintegration of the Johannine community led to a development of the pastoral structure and brought those sympathetic to the Christology described in 3(a) closer to the larger "Catholic church." In 3 John, even if the author disliked him as an authority, Diotrephes probably represented this new trend that was alien to the earlier Johannine trust in the Spirit alone as teacher. Similarly, in John 21:15-17, Jesus entrusts Simon Peter with the task of feeding the sheep and thus recognizes human shepherds alongside Jesus, the model shepherd. This development should ultimately bring some Johannine Christians into the wider church and preserve the Johannine heritage for that church. On the other hand, those sympathetic to the Christology described in 3(b) (perhaps the largest group) saw their interpretation evolve into Docetism (where Jesus was seen as not truly human) and Gnosticism (where this world was seen as so distorted that it was not God's creation) and finally into Montanism (where Montanus became the embodiment of the Paraclete to guide the church).

1. The account of the adulterous woman (7:58-8:11) is absent from the best Greek manuscripts. While for many (including Roman Catholics) this account is canonical and inspired Scripture, it is almost certainly out of context here in John. Some manuscripts place the account after Luke 21:38 as a continuation of the clever questions asked of Jesus before his arrest. We may have here an old account of Jesus' mercy to sinners that traveled independently of the four Gospels and could only be included when the church's reluctance to forgive adultery changed. This passage provides an opportunity to reflect on the relationship between the tradition of Jesus and the teaching of the church.

2. In the commandment "Love one another" (13:34; 15:12.17), John's Jesus is thinking of love for fellow believers who are God's children; but he does not mention enemies. Thus, the Johannine "new commandment" of love may seem narrow to some and even sectarian. Yet, from another perspective, loving those with whom one must live may be the most difficult exercise of love. The prayers of Christians for and concern for those outside the Christian faith can be compromised by a lack of love for other believers in Christ. Ironically, churches have fought bitterly in missionary areas where they all proclaimed their love for those who did not yet believe in Christ!

3. Are there any sacramental references in the Gospel of John? For some biblical scholars, there are no overt references to baptism and the Eucharist. Others, on the other hand, would detect some twenty allusive or symbolic references to baptism and eucharist in John's use of water, bread, wine, sight, etc. An intermediate position holds that the words and actions of the Johannine Jesus are prophetic anticipations of the sacraments rather than direct references. Beyond baptismal/eucharistic interpretations, John has been considered the most sacramental writing in the NT in the broader sense that the Johannine Jesus used the language of this world to refer to the realities of the world from which he came - the earthly used to symbolize the heavenly. Indeed, in a broader sacramental understanding of Johannine symbolism, one can find specific symbolic references to baptism and the eucharist.

4. We have seen that the symbolism of the Bread of Life can have two meanings: the revelation of Jesus' identity and his flesh and blood. In Luke's account of the disciples on the road to Emmaus, the presence of the risen Jesus is recognized in two ways: through the interpretation of the Scriptures and through the breaking of bread. This may be the format of the liturgical service in which Christians over the centuries have sought to be nourished: the service of the word (reading and preaching of the Scriptures) and the service of the sacrament (Eucharist). Churches have sometimes been divided as to which of the two merits greater importance, but the ideal has often been to include both in the Sunday service. Readers may wish to reflect on their own experience of church life, especially if changes have occurred in recent decades, to see how the balance works.

5. Clement of Alexandria called John "the spiritual Gospel". Many Johannine emphases facilitate this intuition, for example:
   • the pedagogically simple image that through begetting/birth in water and Spirit, believers receive the very life of God and that through the flesh and blood of Jesus, this life is fed and nourished;
   • dramatic emphasis on individual contact with Jesus;
   • the role of each of the Johannine characters, such as the blind man and the Samaritan woman, who personify different reactions of faith;
   • the language of love that binds believers to Jesus, just as love binds the Son to the Father;
   • the inner Paraclete through whom Jesus remains accessible;
   • the importance of discipleship, which all can share.

   For John, there are no second-class citizens among true believers; all are God's own children in Christ.